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Marketing Research Glossary

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  • A Posteriori

    An approach where a theoretical framework is developed from the research (after it has been conducted).

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  • A Priori

    An approach where a theoretical framework is developed before the research is conducted.

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  • A Priori Segmentation

    Market segmentation which is not empirically based. It involves segmenting markets on the basis of assumptions, custom, or hunches.

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  • A&U

    Research projects that aim to describe users (and non-users) of a product, together with their attitudes towards the product.

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  • A.C. Nielsen Retail Index

    Provides consumer oriented and media research market intelligence from various sources.

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  • A/B Testing

    A/B testing, at its simplest, is randomly showing a visitor one version of a page- (A) version or (B) version- and tracking the changes in behavior based on which version they saw. (A) version is normally your existing design ("control" in statistics lingo); and (B) version is the "challenger" with one copy or design element changed. In a "50/50 A/B split test," you're flipping a coin to decide which version of a page to show. A classic example would be comparing conversions resulting from serving either version (A) or (B), where the versions display different headlines. A/B tests are commonly applied to clicked-on ad copy and landing page copy or designs to determine which version drives the more desired result.

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  • AAPOR

    American Association of Public Opinion Research

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  • Absolute Error

    The difference between the true value of a parameter in the population and a value derived from a survey. Total error is the sum of the sampling and non-sampling errors in a survey.

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  • Accompanied Shopping

    A form of observation study where an interviewer accompanies a respondent (with his or her agreement) as they go shopping.

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  • Account Manager/Executive

    Generally the person in any company responsible for selling or promoting the services which the company has to offer. In marketing research, this is typically the person at the research company who oversees the entire research process to deliver a project which meets the client's expectations. This person would normally be the client's key contact.

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  • Account Manager/Executive

    Generally the person in any company responsible for selling or promoting the services which the company has to offer. In marketing research, this is typically the person at the research company who oversees the entire research process to deliver a project which meets the client's expectations. This person would normally be the client's key contact.

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  • Accuracy

    The ability of a measurement to match the actual value of the quantity being measured.

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  • Achieved Communality

    A term used in factor analysis that represents the proportion of variance in an original variable accounted for by all the extracted factors. Each original variable will have an achieved communality value in the factor analysis output.

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  • ACORN

    ACORN is a geo-demographic tool assisting business in understanding their target market. ACORN focuses on population location and other lifestyle variables. Individuals in rural locations have different purchasing behavior than those residing in bustling downtown neighborhoods. The information gathered by ACORN allows business to concentrate marketing strategies for specific geographic locations. This impacts marketing campaigns, where to open the next franchise, which store location to close and more.

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  • Acquiescence Bias

    Acquiescence Bias (aka "yea saying" or "friendliness effect"): A systematic bias caused by some respondents tending to agree with whatever is presented to them. Such a bias may be caused by either respondents or interviewers being overly friendly during interviews.

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  • ACR

    Association for Consumer Research

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  • Action Devices

    A direct marketing technique creating involvement by the respondent through the physical use of an involvement device. Involvement devices typically are tokens or stamps that are used with the marketing material. Publisher's Clearing House is a good example employing this marketing theory.

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  • Active Buyer

    An active buyer is a consumer that has made a purchase during the previous 12 months.

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  • Ad Blocker

    Ad blockers prevent an Internet browser from displaying online advertisements. However, ad blockers can prevent useful Internet browsing functions.

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  • Ad Concept Testing

    Testing on a target market segment employed to evaluate advertising theme concepts. The testing results can determine the most appropriate pricing, brand concepts, appeals, and positioning strategy concepts. Respondents provide responses to questionnaires, surveys or interviews.

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  • Ad Hoc Research

    Research that is specifically designed to address a particular problem or issue. Ad hoc research is usually conducted when there is insufficient existing information. Ad hoc projects are usually single pieces of research rather than part of a continuous program.

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  • Ad Hoc Surveys

    A developed survey for the target audience with no previous contact by the examiner.

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  • Ad Positioning Statement Tests

    The evaluation of a positioning statement measuring audience response. Since the positioning statement is the vision or image of a particular brand, this testing process is critical.

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  • Ad Recall

    This measures a respondent's recollection or recall of an advertisement. The respondent's answers provide insight to the most memorable attribute of the advertisement. Generally, ad recall is requested immediately after the respondent views the advertisement. Recall is lessened over time.

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  • Ad Tracking Research

    A study tracking an advertisement over time. The performance of the advertisement is reported throughout the duration of the study.

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  • Adaptive Conjoint Analysis (ACA)

    Sawtooth Software enhances traditional conjoint analysis with Adaptive Conjoint Analysis. The software measures the respondent's answers to the initial interview questions. Based upon these initial responses, the software adapts and focuses on subject matter most valued by the respondent. This method overcomes burdening the respondent with extraneous information which can reduce the respondent's attention span. For more information, visit Sawtooth Software & GMI that offers Sawtooth's conjoint solution.

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  • Adaptive Scripting

    Adaptive scripting is a tailored list of questions. The respondent's response dictates which question to ask next.

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  • Additive Causal Relationship

    A type of causal relationship in which the effect of two variables on a third variable is additive (i.e. one variable does not counteract the effect of the other variable).

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  • Address Coding Guide (CG)

    A comprehensive directory of addresses listing the beginning and ending of house numbers, ZIP codes, and other geographic data for all city delivery service and streets.

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  • Advertising Research Foundation (ARF)

    ARF is a collaborative effort to improve advertising, marketing and media research. ARF hosts conventions and training courses for continuing education. Visit the Advertising Research Foundation for further information.

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  • Affective Component

    One of the three components of attitude that is concerned with individuals' emotions or feelings towards an object or idea.

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  • Affective Component of Attitudes

    The emotional response attached to an attitude. An emotion generated in response to a person, object, or event. The emotion or feeling toward a person or object is the affective component of attitudes.

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  • Affiliate Marketing

    Affiliate marketing is revenue sharing advertising between two websites. The affiliate website will display an online advertisement of another website. Internet traffic from the affiliate site will be driven to the other website. The affiliate is compensated for displaying the advertisement. GlobalTestMarket offers impressive affiliate marketing opportunities.

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  • Affinity Marketing

    Targeting consumers on the basis of their established buying patterns or trends.

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  • After-Only with Control Group

    An experimental design involving groups of respondents. Neither group is measured before the experiment. During the experiment the control group is not subjected to the experimental variable. At the conclusion of the experiment, both groups are measured. The control group's measurement is deducted from the other group's measurement.

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  • Aggregate

    A summary measure made by compounding two or more separate measures, e.g. national income and price index numbers.

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  • Aided Awareness

    The percentage of respondents who claim to have seen something (e.g. a brand or an advert) after having been shown some form of stimulus material.

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  • Aided Recall/Awareness

    A technique used to aid memory, something that stimulates remembering, i.e., picture, words. Reading or showing the respondent the possible answers to a specific question.

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  • Alert

    A means of informing a data collection company of a study authorization and it usually includes a start date, delivery of materials, quota, timings, and cost etc. Alerts can be made by email, telephone, or fax etc.

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  • Alert! Magazine – Second Quarter 2014

    Any means (i.e., telephone, fax, mail) of informing a Data Collection Company of the study authorization to include the starting date, delivery of materials, quota, timing, cost, etc.

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  • All Commodity Volume (ACV)

    The base commonly used in reporting a product's retail distribution. If a product is distributed in only one out of every five stores, it is 20%. However, if the stores that carry the product are the very largest stores that account for 80% of sales, then the ACV is 80%.

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  • Allowable Sampling Error

    An acceptable amount of error during the research.

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  • Alternative Hypothesis

    A statement of what a statistical hypothesis test is set up to establish. The test result is communicated by rejecting the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis or not rejecting the null hypothesis. The test does not reach an acceptance or rejection of the alternative hypothesis.

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  • AMA

    American Marketing Association

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  • American Standard Code of Information Interchange (ASCII)

    Code used for transmitting data from one database to another.

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  • Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)

    An analysis of variance procedure in which the effects of one or more metric-scaled extraneous variables (covariates) are removed from the dependent variable data before one conducts ANOVA.

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  • Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

    A statistical technique for examining the differences among means for two or more populations.

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  • Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

    A statistical method establishing the existence of a difference between several sample means.

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  • Analyst

    The person most responsible for reviewing, analyzing and summarizing the data from a research project.

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  • Analyze (aka Analysis)

    The review of information gained from the responses to questionnaires completed for a study or other data and to arrive at conclusions or to make decisions and recommendations on the subject being studied.

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  • Anchor Label

    A label used to define an extremity of a measurement scale.

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  • Anonymity

    Involves concealing respondents' identities from interviewers and/or researchers.

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  • Answer Cards

    Any material that is shown to participants in research projects.

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  • Anthropomorphic

    A research method requiring respondents to assign human like characteristics to inanimate objects, animals, or forces of nature.

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  • Anthropomorphic or Brand Personality Research

    A research technique in which participants describe a product, service or brand in terms of a human being with personality traits so that the participants' feelings about the object/brand can be determined. Also called Brand Personality Research. Based on the premise that brands can have personalities in much the same way as humans, Brand Personality describes brands in terms of human characteristics. Brand personality is seen as a valuable factor in increasing brand engagement and brand attachment, in much the same way as people relate and bind to other people. Much of the work in the area of brand personality is based on translated theories of human personality and using similar measures of personality attributes and factors. In today's market, the value of brand equity cannot be overestimated. The value that is added to a product by its brand name is of critical importance. While the building of a brand personality rests in the hands of those in marketing and advertising, the identification of the consumers' perception of brand personality requires the tools of marketing research. A large part of such research might utilize psychographic techniques to expose emotional associations that are relevant to the consumer. From this research should emerge a host of perceived and actual product personality traits that are unique to a particular brand.

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  • APA

    American Psychological Association

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  • Applet

    Applets typically are Java programs that can display interactive animation, execute immediate calculations, and provide more uses for a market research questionnaire.

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  • Application Service Provider (ASP)

    An ASP is a company that hosts services, products and applications on their server. Individuals then can purchase a subscription to access those services, products and applications hosted on the server. GMI (Global Market Insite, Inc.) provides this service for market research.

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  • Applied Research

    Research directed toward a current need. The purpose of the research is to discover results that can be applied to the need.

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  • Area of Dominant Influence (ADI)

    A radio or television market region in which that specific population receives the same programming.

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  • Area Samples

    A sample design targeting specific geographic areas.

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  • Area Sampling

    A type of cluster sampling where geographical areas are the clusters.

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  • ARF

    Advertising Research Foundation

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  • Arithmetic Mean

    A summary measure of central tendency that is equal to the sum of a set of values divided by the number of values in the data.

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  • Artificiality

    The degree to which experimental conditions do not reflect real-life conditions. A high degree of artificiality reduces external validity (i.e. it becomes difficult to project the experimental results to the population of interest).

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  • ASA

    American Statistical Association

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  • Association Matrix

    A cross-tabulation table that contains a cell for every combination of categories of the two variables.

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  • Association Technique

    A form of projective technique where participants are presented with some stimulus material and they are then asked to respond with the first thing that comes to their minds.

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  • Asterisk Bills

    A law preventing telemarketing or telephone interviewers calling the phone numbers of subscribers requesting not to be contacted.

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  • Asynchronous Qualitative Research

    The researcher and respondent are not required to interact during the study at the same time.

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  • Asynchronous Research

    The technique in which the respondent records their response on their own time. The response is not prompted by a direct question or event.

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  • At-Home Testing

    The respondent is allowed to bring the product home for testing use. The respondent provides product information and reaction in a telephone survey, written survey or in a group session scheduled after a certain period of time.

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  • Atomistic Test

    A test that aims to assess participants’ reactions to individual elements of a product or concept (in contrast to a holistic test that looks at a product or concept as a whole).

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  • Attempt

    Contacting a potential research respondent. The attempt does not require actual contact or that the potential respondent has agreed to participate.

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  • Attitude

    An individual’s learned predisposition to behave in a consistent manner towards an object or idea. There are three components of attitude:

    1. A cognitive component - knowledge and beliefs.
    2. An affective component - feelings and emotions.
    3. A conative component - behaviour (usually measured in terms of likelihood to buy).
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  • Attitude Research

    A research study to obtain information on how people feel about certain products, ideas, or companies.

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  • Attitude Scaling

    The development of measurement criteria used to measure individuals’ attitudes.

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  • Attitude Survey

    A research study to obtain information on how people feel about certain products, ideas or companies.

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  • Attitude, Awareness, & Usage (AAU) Study

    A market research tracking study recording changes in consumer attitudes, awareness, and usage levels for a product category or specific brand.

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  • Attitudinal Scaling

    A two dimensional technique in which the respondent determines the two most important characteristics of a product.

     
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  • Attribute

    A word or phrase to describe a qualitative characteristic of an idea or object under consideration, e.g. gender is a attribute but age is a variable.

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  • Attribute Analysis

    A technique that is designed to develop lists of characteristics, uses, or benefits relevant to a particular product category.

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  • Audimeter

    An electronic device attached to a TV set that monitors which programs are watched by whom.

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  • Audio Computer-Aided Self-Administered Interviewing (ACASI)

    A survey that the respondent self-administers by listening to the interview with computer aided audio. The respondent’s interview answers are typically recorded via a computer questionnaire.

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  • Audio SAQ

    The respondent conducts a self-administered survey by listening to the interview questions over headphones. The answers are recorded on a paper questionnaire. 

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  • Audit

    Has two definitions in the context of Marketing Research:

    1. Store Audit: A method of determining the number of product units that have been sold, by counting physical units in stores and combining that with a knowledge of the number ordered and stock levels.
    2. Project Audit: Involves visiting a project site to ensure all project specifications are being met and agreed procedures are being followed.
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  • Augment

    This is the process of increasing the amount of research interviews for a particular subgroup within the population. If the client requires 30 completed surveys from Hispanic males and only 20 were completed from the initial research, an augment of 10 surveys of Hispanic males would be conducted.

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  • Autocorrelation

    The same variable is observed over time. The observations produce different values which are correlated.

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  • Automatic Interaction Detector (AID)

    A technique of multivariate analysis. It provides characteristics of a market segment. Demographic attributes and buying behavior are often targeted results.

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  • Average

    A general term that is used to represent or summarize the relevant features of a set of values. The arithmetic mean is often used as a measure of average, but the median and the mode can also be used to summarize a set of values.

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  • Average Issue Readership

    The average number of people who read a particular publication.

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  • Average Opportunities

    The average number of times an advert has been exposed to a specified television audience or universe.

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  • Awareness

    A measure of respondents’ knowledge of an object or an idea. There are two main measures of awareness: spontaneous (or unaided) and prompted (or aided) awareness.

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  • B2B Exchanges

    Online market places where businesses can offer specific companies products or services at discounted prices, products or services through an auction, and buyers can receive tentative bids. The most successful B2B exchanges are with products that can be easily interchanged. It is predicted, however, that more services will begin to be offered through these exchanges which could include the fieldwork for market research.

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  • Baby Boom

    Currently America's largest generation consisting of Americans born after World War II (1946-1964).

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  • Baby Boomers

    People who were born between 1946 and 1964.

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  • Baby Boomlet

    Children of baby boomers that lead to the peak of births from 1977 to the present.

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  • Baby Bust

    The generation referred to as "generation X" when birth rates were dramatically lowered from 1965-1976.

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  • Back Checking

    The respondent is contacted after the research and questioned about the interview and the interviewer. This process authenticates the collected data by ensuring responses were provided by the actual respondent.

    The subsequent re-contacting of respondents in a survey to check that the proper procedures have been followed, e.g. the respondent was qualified to be included in the survey, the responses recorded were accurate or even that the interview actually took place. Validation can be performed by the data collection company and/or the client, in person, by telephone, or by mail.

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  • Back Room

    Researchers use this room to listen and observe qualitative research and the room is hidden from the observed focus groups by a one-way mirror. 

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  • Back to Back Focus Groups

    This research method ushers a focus group immediately into another session upon conclusion of the first session.

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  • Back Translation

    A validation process where a survey is first translated into another language and then translated back into the original language by a different person. The objective is to ensure that the original translation is accurate.

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  • Balanced Incomplete Block (BIB)

    A testing procedure designed to rotate multiple products or items in an experiment.

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  • Balanced Scale

    A scale with an equal number of favourable and unfavourable categories.

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  • Balanced Scales

    This is the column data set in a cross tab computer table.

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  • Banner Format

    A style of data tabulation where the responses from each sub-group are listed for each question in the survey.

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  • Banner Point

    A column heading in banner format tabulations and corresponds to a particular sub-group of the sample. It is usual practice to have the independent variables as banner points.

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  • Bar Chart

    A type of graph where the data is displayed in the form of bars that can be arranged vertically or horizontally.

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  • Base

    The number used to compute percentages in a table; the total ( or sub-category) of interviews completed.

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  • Base Line

    The result of a study conducted to obtain a snapshot or reading of current conditions prior to some change in market conditions or the introduction of some test conditions. The result is then used as a standard for comparison with subsequent studies.

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  • Baseline Market Segmentation Study

    The first segmentation study conducted by an organization which will act as the initial state of the segment and will be compared to future studies.

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  • Basic Research

    Research conducted to gain knowledge as opposed to research aimed to solve specific problems.

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  • Bayesian Statistics

    Probability calculations that are derived from statistics which include both previous knowledge as well as accumulated experience.

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  • Before and After with a Control Group

    Pre and post experiment measuring of subjects in each group (experimental and control).

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  • Behavioral Advertising

    Behavioral Targeting (also known as preference marketing, behavioral advertising, behavioral marketing, or online profiling) is defined by the FTC as “the tracking of a consumer’s online activities over time – including the searches the consumer has conducted, the Web pages visited, and the content viewed – in order to deliver advertising targeted to the individual consumer’s interests".

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  • Behavioral Component of Attitudes

    A consumer's reaction, both mental and physical, toward a product or event.

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  • Behavioral Targeting

    Behavioral Targeting (also known as preference marketing, behavioral advertising, behavioral marketing, or online profiling) is defined by the FTC as “the tracking of a consumer’s online activities over time – including the searches the consumer has conducted, the Web pages visited, and the content viewed – in order to deliver advertising targeted to the individual consumer’s interests".

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  • Bench Mark

    A study conducted to obtain a snapshot or reading of current conditions prior to some change in market conditions or the introduction of some test conditions. These results are then used as a standard for comparison. Often used to refer to the first study in a series of like studies to be conducted over time at some regular interval.

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  • Benchmark

    An existing source used as a target to compare to a similar project or product.

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  • Benefit Segmentation

    These are specific subsets of a population based upon their needs and desires rather than on lifestyle of demographic measurements.

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  • Benefit Segmentation

    The dividing of potential consumers into sub-groups according to the benefits sought.

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  • Bernoulli Response Variables

    Responses that require the choice of one out of two possibilities. Examples would be yes/no or on/off questions.

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  • Best Light Phenomenon

    When respondents bias their answers in a market research project so that they can then appear in the best possible way to those who are looking at the responses.

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  • Bias

    A general term referring to the inaccuracy in a research study caused by non-sampling errors.

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  • Bias

    A misrepresentation of the population from the taken sample. Question wording, data entry, interviewing techniques, and a non-representative sample can all cause biases.

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  • Biased Questions

    Questions which are phrased or expressed in such a way that they influence the respondent’s opinion. They may provide information which leads the respondent to consider the subject in a specific way. Bias may be introduced through verbal or facial expressions, body language, or by paraphrasing questions.

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  • Biased Responses

    An untrue statement of an opinion or attitude given by the respondent. This biased or untrue reporting can be conscious or unconscious.

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  • Biased Sample

    A sample that does not contain units in the same proportion as the population of interest.

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  • Bid

    Estimated costs associated with compliance to specifications.

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  • Bimodal

    A two-peaked frequency curve distribution. A mode consists of a single peak.

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  • Bimodal Distribution

    A frequency distribution with two modes.

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  • Binomial Experiment

    A study that independently draws from the Bemoulli population to create a sequence of trials.

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  • Binomial Test

    A statistical test of dichotomous data (where there are two possible outcomes) to check whether the research data is significantly different to what would be expected.

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  • Bipolar Adjectives

    Two opposing adjectives that define the opposite ends of a scale (such as a Semantic Differential Scale).

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  • Bipolar Scale

    A measuring tool spanning two negative points at opposite ends of the spectrum with an ideal situation placed in the middle. Examples include soft/hard, too spicy/too bland.

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  • Birth Rate

    A population measurement noting the births in a year for every 1,000 in the population.

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  • Bivariate Analysis

    The analysis of a relationship between two variables.

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  • Bivariate Correlation

    A statistic that is calculated to determine whether a linear relationship exists between two metric variables and it takes values between -1 and +1 (depending on the degree of the relationship). A negative value indicates that the variables move in opposite directions and a positive value indicates that they move in the same direction. A value of 0 indicates that there is no linear relationship (although there may be a non-linear relationship).

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  • Bivariate Data Set

    An experiment where units are subject to be tested on two different variables.

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  • Bivariate Regression

    A procedure for deriving the equation that relates a single metric dependent variable and a single metric independent variable.

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  • Bivariate Regression Analysis

    A linear regression line created to determine the strength of the relationship of two variables, an independent and dependent variable.

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  • Bivariate Techniques

    Multiple statistical strategies to analyze how two variables relate to one another.

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  • Blind Study

    The brand or product is hidden from the respondent during the testing.

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  • Blind Test

    A technique used to evaluate a package or product without benefit or influence of the brand name.

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  • Blind Testing

    The testing of products with potential consumers where brand names, packaging and other identifying items have been removed.

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  • Block Numbering Area (BNA)

    Small divisions of non-metropolitan counties for which statistics are held for grouping and numbering.

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  • Blocked Calls

    Incoming telephone calls that do not go through to the receiver, but are stopped by a busy signal upon dialing the number.

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  • Blocking Factor

    The relevant external variable that is used to group (or block) experimental units into groups so that the experimental group and the control group are matched.

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  • Blocks

    Defined by the Census as a piece of land that is equal in size to a city block.

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  • Booster

    Additional interviews involving a particular sub-group of a sample to ensure there are sufficient members of the sub-group in the resulting sample.

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  • Boundary

    The perimeter that defines the market area that is being researched.

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  • Boundary Files

    Physical features that border a market area and can be recognized by a computer.

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  • Box Plot

    A visual tool used to graph the data and exposed outliers.

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  • Brainstorming Sessions

    A creative method of coming up with new ideas or solutions to a problem by generating a large number of ideas without subjecting them or the person who suggested them to critical evaluation. They can also be referred to as "ideation sessions".

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  • Branching Question

    A question used to guide an interviewer through a survey to different questions (i.e. skipping some questions), depending on the answers given.

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  • Brand

    A product or service to which human beings attach a bundle of tangible (functional product and service characteristics) and intangible (emotional and/or symbolic) meanings that add value. A brand has one strategic purpose and that is to differentiate itself from competitors.

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  • Brand

    The physical attributes of a product or service, together with the beliefs and expectations surrounding it. A unique combination which the name or logo of the product or service should evoke in the mind of the audience.

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  • Brand Associations

     Consumer opinions of brand that are generally exposed and analyzed by qualitative research.

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  • Brand Awareness

    A measure or indication of the readiness with which a brand springs to mind.

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  • Brand Equity

    A term developed to describe the financial value of a brand to the bottom line profit of a business.

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  • Brand Equity

    A company's level of awareness as well as consumer goodwill determined by consumer's views of company brand and/or products.

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  • Brand Essence

    The set of core values that define a brand. These values remain constant over time even though the executional characteristics of packaging, advertising (and other marketing variables) may change. By defining the brand essence with clarity, a brand owner creates a template against which all marketing and NPD activity can be developed and integrated.

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  • Brand Extension

    The development of new products to be marketed under an existing brand name.

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  • Brand Image

    The total impression created in the mind of a potential consumer by a brand and all its functional and emotional associations. The total image can be seen as the sum of several associations.

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  • Brand Impact

    A technique used to measure the effectiveness of advertising.

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  • Brand Name

    A product name, usually other than that of the manufacturer or company.

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  • Brand Personality

    An expression of the fundamental core values and characteristics of a brand, described and experienced as human personality traits, e.g. friendly, intelligent, innovative etc. It is an expression of the relationship between the consumer and the brand.

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  • Brand Positioning

    The location of a brand in relation to its competitors in some pre-defined space. The space may be defined by criteria used by consumers, such as "value for money" or "age of consumer" etc.

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  • Brand Proposition

    A sentence or phrase that encapsulates the brand benefits, e.g. a brand with technical superiority or a brand that guarantees next-day delivery. Often a brand benefit is translated into an end-line that becomes part of the brand communication on advertising, packaging or promotions, e.g. "the world's favourite airline".

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  • Brand Share

    The percentage of sales of a specific product category that are accounted for by one brand. Brand shares can be expressed in terms of the sales value or the volume of units sold.

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  • Brand Switching

    A consumer that purchases multiple brands of a product. For example, a consumer that purchases Pepsi one week and Coke the next week.

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  • Brand Value

    The value which a brand would be given if represented on a company balance sheet.

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  • Branding

    Has two meanings:

    1. The process, which may take decades, by which a brand comes to have added values and involves long-term support by communications either above or below the line.

    2. The associative strength between an advertisement (usually) and a brand expressed as a positive or negative relationship, i.e. "well branded" or "poorly branded".

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  • Break Off

    The respondent decides to terminate the research interview before completion. This is more common for self-administered surveys than it is with research conducted by an actual interviewer.

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  • Bricks and Mortar

    A company which requires consumers to travel to a physical location in order to have access to the company's products or services. Companies that also operate online are often called clicks and mortar companies. Pure plays refer to companies that exist solely on the Internet.

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  • Brief

    Can have two similar meanings in the context of marketing research:

    • A Brief can be a statement (usually in writing) of a business problem that could be alleviated by conducting some marketing research. Briefs are normally written by a client company for a research supplier and they usually have a background and an objectives section. A suggested methodology section can also be included.
    • A Briefing can be a training session prior to starting work on a study in which all specifications and details of the study are reviewed. This is generally followed by practice (or pilot) interviews where they are being used.
     
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  • Briefing

    A discussion between a client and the assigned researcher designed to find the most efficient research methodology for the client's needs.

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  • Briefing

    A training session, prior to starting work on a study/survey, in which all of the survey specifications, questionnaire parts, and details of the interview are reviewed, explained, and clarified for all interviewers assigned to the project. This is generally followed by practice interviews being administered by one interviewer to another.

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  • Bubble Test

    A projective technique where participants are presented with one or more pictures or cartoons that depict a situation. They are asked to suggest what will happen or what one character may be saying or thinking in response to another character or a situation.

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  • Bulletin Board Groups

    Online qualitative research that communicates with group members through a message board. Questions or tasks are posted by a moderator and the members access the site and respond to the moderator's promptings. Net-MR Software Suite provides bulletin board market research solutions.

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  • Business Intelligence

    Information considered for company planning, strategy, and decision making. Business Intelligence relies upon data analytic tools and data mining solutions.

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  • Business to Business (B2B)

    Refers to the buyer and seller of a product or service. This market consists of a business selling its product or service to another business instead of selling to consumers. Specific market research is conducted with businesses to meet B2B needs.

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  • Business to Consumer (B2C)

    Describes the market of a business selling a product or service to a consumer. To service B2C markets, consumers are studied in market research.

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  • Business-to-Business Interviews

    Interviews with business people or experts within a particular field. Executive interviews are often used where the majority of knowledge of a subject is held by a minority of people.

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  • Busy (BZ)

    The accepted abbreviation for indicating a busy signal when dialing on a phone survey.

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  • Buying Behavior

    A process buyers go through when deciding whether or not to purchase goods or services. Buying behavior can be influenced by a variety of external factors and motivations, including marketing activity.

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  • Buying Intent

    A technique used to measure the level of which a participant intents to buy a particular product.

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  • Buying Rate

    The average volume purchased per buyer over the period of an analysis.

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  • CAC

    Consumer Advocacy Council

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  • Call Disposition

    A tabulation of the outcome of calls made during a Computer-Aided Telephone Interview survey.

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  • Call Record Sheet

    A working document that interviewers use to record which numbers they have tried as well as the results of the attempt.

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  • Callback

    A repeat telephone call to a potential respondent to see if they can participate in a survey. Pursuing contact with a person that was not contacted on the first attempt or used to describe a follow-up with someone where contact was established (after an interview).

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  • Cannibalisation

    The degree to which increased sales of one brand replace sales of another brand or brands from the same manufacturer.

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  • Canonical Analysis

    An extension of multiple regression analysis that deals with two dependent variables.

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  • CAPI

    Responses in a personal interview are keyed directly into a computer and the administration of the interview is managed by a specifically designed program. The program checks for invalid responses and will not accept responses outside prescribed limits, hence subsequent editing and keying in of data is avoided.

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  • Cartoon Test

    A projective technique where participants are presented with one or more pictures or cartoons that depict a situation. They are asked to suggest what will happen or what one character may be saying or thinking in response to another character or a situation.

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  • Cartoon Tests

    A technique that allows participants to compose dialogue for a drawn character within a cartoon.

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  • Case

    A complete record of an interview with a respondent or a data entry record.

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  • Casewise Deletion

    When an entire questionnaire from a respondent is removed from the analysis because some of the questions have not been completed.

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  • CASI

    A computer-based survey that respondents complete usually at a central location after being recruited.

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  • Casual Relationships

    Where one can infer that two variables are related in some way. Three conditions have to be met before a causal relationship can be inferred; there has to be evidence of association (concomitant variation), the dependent variable has to change after the independent variable has changed (temporal ordering), and all other possible causes have to be eliminated.

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  • Casual Research

    A type of conclusive research that aims to collect data on causal relationships.

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  • Categorical Data

    Responses with no numeric value to one another. Such response could be hair color, or eye color.

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  • Categorical Scale

    A scale that asks respondents to choose from a limited number of alternatives. There are three main types of categorical scale; semantic differential, stapel, and Likert.

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  • Categorical Variable

    A variable that is based on non-metric data (i.e. data that cannot be analysed statistically such as that from a nominal or ordinal scale).

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  • Category Usage

    Certain products or services among a population requiring a study. This is an incident rate for that product or service. For example, the category usage of powder laundry detergent is 40% of the population that uses laundry detergent.

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  • CATI

    Interviews that are conducted over the telephone between a consumer and a computer. Responses are keyed directly into a computer and administration of the interview is managed by a specifically designed program. The program checks for invalid responses and will not accept responses outside prescribed limits, hence subsequent editing and keying in of data is avoided. CATI software will increase call center productivity.

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  • Causal Research

    Research that attempts to explain the relationship between two variables (if A causes B to occur).

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  • Causal Variable

    A variable that exerts some influence on another (dependent) variable. Research experiments usually involve some manipulation of independent variables and measurement of dependent variables to investigate the relationship between them.

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  • Causation

    The conditional statement of inferring that the change in a single variable is responsible for a resulting change in another variable.

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  • CAWI

    A form of interviewing that is conducted over the Internet. Respondents complete a website (or HTML) survey and some computer software presents each question only after the previous question has been completed. Subsequent questions can be tailored to previous question answers, enabling sophisticated routing plans to be used in these surveys.

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  • CCENSPAC

    The United States Census Bureau's computer program to aid in the 1980 census.

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  • Cell

    A sub-sample of respondents in a research study. In a paired comparison product test, one subsample (or cell of people) tests Product A first and then Product B, while the other subsample (cell) tests the two products in reverse order. These subsamples may be referred to as Cell A and Cell B. It can also refer to geographic areas, North vs. South; demographics, old vs. young, and so forth.

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  • Cell Size

    The most basic unit that can be varied during a study.

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  • Census

    A survey that is administered to an entire population. Generally refers to a complete canvas of the population being studied.

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  • Census Areas

    Zones identified by the United States Census Bureau. There are four census regions and nine census divisions.

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  • Census Divisions

    The groups of states that are included in the nine census divisions are:

    1. Pacific: Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, & Washington. 
    2. Mountain: Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, & Wyoming. 
    3. West North Central: Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, & South Dakota. 
    4. East North Central: Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, & Wisconsin. 
    5. West South Central: Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, & Texas. 
    6. East South Central: Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, & Tennessee. 
    7. South Atlantic: West Virginia, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, & Washington, DC. 
    8. Middle Atlantic: New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, & Rhode Island. 
    9. New England: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire & Vermont.
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  • Census Regions

    The groups of states that are included in the four census regions are:

    1. West: Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada. 
    2. Midwest: North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan. 
    3. South: Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Washington, DC, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Delaware, and Tennessee. 
    4. Northeast: Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine.

     

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  • Census Tract

    Segments that identify similar social and economic households within the ZIP code group. Tracts usually include 2,500 to 8,000 households.

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  • Census Undercount

    Percentage of Americans that were not accounted for by the census due to not answering the census.

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  • Central Limit Theorem

    Theory that states that if you have a collection of a large number of sample means, the means will have a normal distribution regardless of the population used for the sample.

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  • Central Limit Theorem

    A theorem that states that the sampling distribution curve (for sample sizes of 30 and over) will be centered on the population parameter value and it will have all the properties of a normal distribution.

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  • Central Location Interviewing

    When face-to-face interviews are conducted at one or more specified locations (e.g. mall intercept interviewing).

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  • Central Location Test (CLT)

    A term used to describe a study conducted at a selected test site or sites in an area. The interviewing method is usually in person and done one-on-one or in groups.

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  • Central-Location Study

    A study that takes place at a physical site that is convenient for all participants to access.

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  • Centralised Research Function

    Where the marketing researchers in an organisation are located together in one department.

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  • Centroid

    Points on a map that indicate the center of the 260,000 block groups and enumeration districts that exist in the United States.

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  • Centroid

    The average value of a group of objects in a cluster.

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  • Chat Room

    Where participants in separate locations are invited to join a virtual group discussion using their PCs and the Internet. The discussion may or may not have a moderator and comments are communicated in writing on members’ screens. Participants in the discussion are usually not screened in the same way as for an online discussion group or a moderated e-mail group.

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  • Check List

    A list of items to be examined or things to be done. For example, a supervisor may receive a check list with the materials for a job listing the supplies enclosed. A questionnaire may contain a list of items to be checked off by the respondent or the interviewer during the interview.

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  • Chi Square Distribution

    A skewed distribution whose shape depends on the number of degrees of freedom. As the number of degrees of freedom increases, the distribution becomes more symmetrical.

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  • Chi-Square

    A statistical test that measures significance of the accuracy between the expected distribution and the observed distribution.

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  • Chi-Square Test

    A non-parametric statistical test that compares research data with the expected results from a hypothesis.

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  • Chief Income Earner

    The person in the household with the largest income, whether from employment, pensions, state benefits, investments, or any other source. Where there are two people with the same income, the researcher should specify who to include in the study.

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  • Chief Shopper

    The member of a household who is responsible for the majority of household purchasing decisions.

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  • Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA)

    A 1998 law passed in the United States that protects children on the Internet by setting guidelines and regulations for websites that attract children or could deal with children of the United States in fashion. See the FTC's COPPA website for more information.

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  • Children's Online Privacy Protection Rule (COPPR)

    The rules that outline the regulation used for COPPA. An example is the rule that requires privacy statements to be linked on all websites that children of the United States might visit. See the FTC's COPPA site for more information.

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  • Choice Modeling

    Discrete choice analysis involves conjoint research in which the results must match closely with the current market responses.

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  • Choropleth Maps

    Maps that use shading to specify certain characteristics in geographical areas with colors and shading.

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  • Chronological Age

    Individuals’ ages in years and months (which may be different to their Cognitive Age).

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  • Churn

    This is the amount of respondents that leave a panel during a specific time frame.

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  • Claimed Recall

    A measure used in advertising surveys that refers to the proportion of respondents who say they saw or heard an advertisement or a particular form of advertising.

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  • Clarifying

    The repeating or re-phrasing of an existing question to get a further explanation of an answer provided by a respondent.

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  • Clarifying

    A technique used to follow up on open-ended responses by asking participants to further explain their response to make it clearer.

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  • Classification Information

    Socio-economic and/or demographic information on participants in a market research study.

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  • Classification Questions

    Questions that aim to collect classification information and they are usually put at the end of a questionnaire.

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  • Classified Scale

    A scale where the numbers act only as data labels (e.g. 0=male, 1=female or a social security number). The only analysis that can be performed is to observe how frequently each of the scale members occurs in the survey.

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  • Click Rate

    A percentage measuring the amount of people that click on an ad compared to the amount of people that are exposed to the ad.

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  • Clicks and Mortar

    These are companies that exist both in a physical location and on the Internet. E-tailers are clicks and mortar companies if they use both stores and websites to conduct business, but are considered pure-play if they only exist online. Clicks and mortar evolved from the terms bricks and mortar which describes physical location stores only.

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  • Client

    Any individual or organization that requests, commissions, or subscribes to all or any part of a market research project.

     

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  • Client

    Anyone who purchases the services of another. In marketing research, the client typically funds and uses the research data, and may be a full-service research company, an advertising agency, a manufacturer, a newspaper or another data collection company.

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  • Client Facing Staff

    Marketing researchers who are the link between research clients and the marketing research department or supplier.

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  • Clinical Focus Groups

    Focus groups that are looking to expose a consumer's behaviors and the moderator uses techniques to explore the participants subconscious motivation. Focus group software can simplify this process for online research.

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  • Closed-End Question

    A question that offers the respondent answers from which they must choose from.

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  • Closed-Ended Questions

    Closed-ended questions provide respondents with a pre-determined list of possible answers.

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  • Cluster

    Describes a group of homes that are assumed to have similar demographic, social, and economic characteristics as one another within a neighborhood.

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  • Cluster Analysis

    A statistical technique that helps in determining which category individuals of a population belong to. Multiple characteristics are used to determine the groups, and differences within a category need to be less than differences between categories. Cluster analysis is a good demographic tool for consumer segmentation in marketing research.

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  • Cluster Analysis

    An analytical technique that arranges research data into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups (or clusters) where the contents of each cluster are similar to each other, but different to the other clusters in the analysis.

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  • Cluster Sampling

    A type of probability sampling where a population of interest is divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive sub-groups (or clusters) and a sample of clusters is selected. From the selected clusters, a sample of units is drawn.

    Consists of selecting clusters of units in a population and then performing a census on each cluster. The selection of clusters could be based on some desired feature of the population or could be a random sample of clusters in the population.

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  • Clutter Reels

    Video tapes with a number of TV commercials including the one(s) being tested and they are used to assess a commercial’s ability to stand out from the rest.

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  • CMOR

     Council for Marketing and Opinion Research (CMOR), an umbrella organization dedicated to respondent cooperation and government affairs, which merged into the Marketing Research Association (MRA) at the end of 2008.

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  • Co-op Fee

    A reward given to participants or businesses for taking the time and trouble to cooperate in a marketing research study.

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  • Co-op Payment

    Compensation paid to research participants as an incentive for participation in focus groups, interviews, or surveys. The difficulty level of recruiting participants correlates to the amount that respondents receive. Also referred to as an honorarium or incentive.

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  • Code and Tab

    Tabulating or calculating collected survey responses. The tabulations or calculations are can completed by computer or manually.

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  • Code and Tab Plan

    A plan that details the column and row headings in the cross-tabulations that are produced from the data.

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  • Code Book

    A set of instructions regarding the allocation of codes to research data. It helps researchers identify and locate the variables to be used in data analysis.

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  • Code of Conduct

    All professional marketing research societies have a code of conduct that details the rights and responsibilities of those involved with marketing and opinion research.

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  • Coding

    A process used to quantify data so that it can be used to statistical analysis and data processing. The organizing of responses into categories and the assignment of a unique numerical code to each response prior to data entry.

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  • Coding Frame

    A set of instructions regarding the allocation of codes to research data. It helps researchers identify and locate the variables to be used in data analysis.

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  • Coefficient of Determination

    A statistics term used with regression. The coefficient represents the percentage that the independent variable explains in the dependent variable.

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  • Coefficient of Determination (R Squared)

    The exact percentage of variation shared by two variables, obtained by squaring the product moment correlation coefficient.

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  • Coefficient of Variation

    A measure of variability (or dispersion) of a distribution and it is equal to the standard deviation expressed as a percentage of the mean.

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  • Cognitive Age

    An individual’s perceived age, which may be different to their Chronological Age. For example pre-teens aspire to be older and 40 year olds may well aspire to be younger.

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  • Cognitive Component of Attitudes

    The interpretation of a particular attitude projected at a person, object, or event.

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  • Cognitive Dissonance

    The emotion that runs through a consumer after they have made a major purchase and begin to rethink their purchase when new alternatives are exposed. Consumers will try to rationalize their purchase by focusing on the advantages to the product that they bought.

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  • Cohort

    Those in a study with similar demographic characteristics.

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  • Cohort Analysis

    A type of multiple cross-sectional design where the population of interest is a cohort whose members have all experienced the same event in the same time period (e.g. birth). The samples are usually drawn at regular time intervals.

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  • Cohort Measures

    Recording and analyzing a cohort's activities for an extended period of time.

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  • Collectively Exhaustive

    A set of alternatives is collectively exhaustive when they include all possibilities.

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  • Collinearity

    A bias in statistical procedure due to the correlation of multiple independent variables that influence a single dependent variable. This makes it difficult to recognize which independent variable is really causing the change in the dependent variable.

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  • Communality

    In factor analysis, this is the amount of variance a variable shares with all the other variables being considered. It is also the proportion of variance explained by the common factors.

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  • Comparability

    The extent to which research results can be meaningfully compared.

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  • Comparative Scales

    A type of scale where one object is compared with another and a relative measure of preference is obtained, e.g. do respondents prefer one or another soft drink? The main types of comparative scales are: paired comparison, rank order, constant sum, and Q sort.

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  • Comparative Scales

    Scales that require respondents to judge an object, concept, or person as compared to another in the same category.

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  • Compensatory Model

    A multi-attribute model in which one attribute compensates for another in the overall preference for an object or idea.

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  • Complement of Event "A"

    A group containing all events that do not occur in event A.

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  • Completes

    Interviews that have been completed.

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  • Completion Rate (Completes Per Hour - CPH)

    The number of interviews completed per hour of interviewing. Factors influencing completion rate are accuracy of sample, study incidence, interview length, screener length, and cooperation rate (i.e. how many qualified respondents will actually complete the survey).

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  • Completion Technique

    A form of projective technique where participants are asked to complete an incomplete situation.

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  • Completions

    Questionnaires that are completed through a pre-determined question sequence and are included in the final data set for the study.

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  • Complex Questions

    Questions containing words that are unfamiliar to respondents.

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  • Composite Variable Index

    An index that combines a number of separate variables, e.g. education, income, and occupation being used to form one overall measure of social class.

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  • Compositional Approach

    An approach to attitude measurement where the overall preference for an object is obtained by summing the evaluative rating of each attribute multiplied by the importance of that attribute.

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  • Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR)

    The average annual percentage growth rate for a series of n observations. The formula for determining the CAGR % is as follows:

    (((last value/first value)^(1/n))-1)*100

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  • Computer-Aided Personal Interviewing (CAPI)

    An interview that is administered through a computer-based survey. The program checks for invalid responses and will not accept responses outside prescribed limits, hence subsequent editing and keying in of data is avoided. CAPI software can streamline the interview process.

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  • Computer-Aided Self-Administered Interviewing

    A computer-based survey that respondents complete usually at a central location after being recruited.

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  • Computer-Aided Telephone Interviewing

    Interviews that are conducted over the telephone between a consumer and a computer. Responses are keyed directly into a computer and administration of the interview is managed by a specifically designed program. The program checks for invalid responses and will not accept responses outside prescribed limits, hence subsequent editing and keying in of data is avoided. CATI software will increase call center productivity.

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  • Computer-Aided Web Interviewing

    A form of interviewing that is conducted over the Internet. Respondents complete a website (or HTML) survey and some computer software presents each question only after the previous question has been completed. Subsequent questions can be tailored to previous question answers, enabling sophisticated routing plans to be used in these surveys.

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  • Concentric Circle

    A geometric study area with a common center. Also called a ring.

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  • Concept

    A description of a proposed product or service consisting of attributes and benefits.

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  • Concept Board

    A board with a written description of a product idea or positioning, often accompanied by an illustration that is shown to respondents.

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  • Concept Description

    The brief summary to describe a new product or service.

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  • Concept Statement

    A brief written description of a new product or service idea.

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  • Concept Test

    A test of consumer reaction to a description of a product or service rather than to the product or service itself.

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  • Concept Testing

    The investigation of potential consumers’ reactions to a proposed product or service. Gauging market responses new ideas or their implementation.

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  • Conceptual Mapping

    A qualitative technique used to understand how participants view products or services by asking them to assign the products/services to certain areas of a diagram. Primarily this is used to stimulate a discussion on the certain products or services and why they are viewed a particular way.

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  • Conclusions

    The summary of the research findings that are presented in the final report of a research project. A conclusion usually includes an explanation of what was uncovered by the conducted research.

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  • Conclusive Research

    Conclusive research involves the use of highly structured techniques (such as questionnaires with closed questions) with statistically representative samples in order to prove or disprove hypotheses.

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  • Concomitant Variation

    When two variables occur or vary together. It is one of the conditions that has to be met in order to infer a causal relationship.

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  • Concomitant Variation

    The observed relationship between causes and effects and the degree to which they occur together.

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  • Concurrent Validity

    The degree to which two different measuring systems produce correlating results. It is often used to determine the validity of new measuring techniques, by comparing them with established techniques.

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  • Concurrent Validity

    Using past results to predict a current very similar project because of valid measurement techniques.

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  • Conditional Probability

    Additional information offered that changes the initial probability of an event occurring.

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  • Conditional Probability

    The probability of a research outcome occurring if a state or condition was to exist.

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  • Confidence Coefficient

    A percentage (usually 95%) that reflects the degree of certainty that the true value lies within the confidence interval. It is the minimum probability of not rejecting a true null hypothesis (committing a Type I error) and is equal to one minus the significance level.

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  • Confidence Interval

    A range of values centred on the sample estimate that is known to contain the true value with a given degree of confidence (usually 95%).

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  • Confidence Intervals

    A statistical range that is placed to ensure that the true population parameter will be included in the survey results.

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  • Confidence Level

    A percentage (usually 95%) that reflects the degree of certainty that the true value lies within the confidence interval. It is the minimum probability of not rejecting a true null hypothesis (committing a Type I error) and is equal to one minus the significance level.

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  • Confidence Level

    A probability that is used to determine, with confidence, that the true population value is represented in the statistical distribution.

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  • Confidence Limits

    The two values from each end of a confidence interval.

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  • Confidentiality

    Confidentiality refers to the act of not divulging two types of information in a research study. First, confidentiality is maintained when study information such as client name, brand name, purpose of the research, concepts and/or products (except as directed by the study instructions) is only provided to those who have a need to know. Confidentiality also refers to maintaining the privacy of any information collected from or about any individual respondent.

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  • Confounded

    The result of an independent and an extraneous variable indistinguishably affecting a dependent variable. Control groups are often used to prevent confounding in research.

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  • Confounding Variables

    Factors that are not manipulated as part of an experiment, but they may exert some influence on the dependent variable under study.

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  • Conjoint Analysis

    A research technique that aims to describe how consumers make complex decisions by assuming the decisions are based on a number of factors considered jointly (hence the name) and they trade off some factors for others. The technique requires participants to choose a limited number of attributes from a selection, thereby providing an indication of the importance attached to particular attributes.

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  • Conjoint Analysis

    A way to quantify consumer's values associated with different product attributes using multivariate techniques. Participants compare products to establish preferences and can then explain the importance of different attributes. Functional brands benefit more from conjoint analysis than do fashionable brands as the analysis relies on utility theory and consumer rationality. There are several conjoint analysis tools.

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  • Conjoint Association

    A technique that allows moderators to present hypothetical products or services with different attributes to respondents in an effort to stimulate conversation on the importance of certain attributes to products or services to help the researchers understand the value associated with each attribute.

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  • Consideration Set

    The set of alternatives that potential consumers would consider when buying a product or service.

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  • Consistency Check

    The identifying of completed questionnaires with data that are out of the permissible range, logically inconsistent, or have extreme values. Data that is out of the range of the coding scheme is inadmissible.

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  • Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA)

    A group made up of primary metropolitan statistical areas (PMSA), examples include Minneapolis-St. Paul. CMSAs can be subdivided into metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs).

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  • Constant Sum Scales

    Scales asking participants to assign their individual values perceptions of certain attributes so that the sum of all attribute values equals a certain number of points (100 is a common number).

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  • Constant Sum Scaling

    A type of comparative scale where respondents are asked to allocate a fixed amount (or constant sum) of points, dollars, or anything among a set of objects according to a criterion.

     
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  • Constitutive Definition

    A construct is defined by other constructs in the set and the relationship that occurs between the constructs. This helps in setting boundaries for constructs.

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  • Construct

    A set of attitudes or values used by consumers.

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  • Construct

    An idea that powers research, for example, hypotheses or concepts are considered constructs.

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  • Construct Validity

    The accuracy of the construct, determined by observations and measurements, that allows legitimate inferences to be made from the construct.

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  • Consumer

    The ultimate user who purchases a product or service to satisfy their needs.

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  • Consumer Behavior

    The buying trends and habits of consumers in the purchasing and usage of goods and services.

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  • Consumer Confusion Study

    A study that aims to measure the tendency of consumers to confuse the company that makes a particular brand with another company, or to confuse one brand with another.

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  • Consumer Drawings

    A qualitative method in which participants are asked to express their feelings or perceptions about a product by drawing it.

     
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  • Consumer Expenditure

    The dollar amount that expresses what consumers put toward a purchase on goods and services.

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  • Consumer Expenditure Survey (CEX)

    An ongoing survey administered by the Bureau of Labor Statistics that monitors consumer expenditures.

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  • Consumer Orientation

    After identifying target markets, it is the process of finding specific firms or individuals that might be interested in purchasing the company's product or service.

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  • Consumer Panel

    A group of selected research participants who have agreed to provide pre-designated information at regular specified intervals over an extended period of time. The information may be on purchasing, media consumption, or life-style activities.

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  • Consumer Price Index (CPI)

    A way of measuring inflation that is computed by taking a basket of goods and services and determining the price of those goods and services in a base year and the current price. The values can then be compared over several years to determine the increase in nominal value of the goods and services.

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  • Consumer Satisfaction Surveys

    Studies that aim to determine consumers' opinion of the quality of goods and services offered by a business. They can include qualitative and quantitative research techniques.

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  • Consumer Survey

    An investigation of the behaviour, preferences, attitudes, or opinions of a target group sample, collected through a questionnaire.

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  • Consumer Unit

    A household represented by an individual, related families, or unrelated roommates that make consumer purchasing decisions together.

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  • Contact

    When the interviewer has actual interaction with a potential research respondent.

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  • Contact Rate

    This is the amount of respondents reached for a survey that are responsible members of the household.

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  • Contamination

    A sample group that possesses an individual or group that does not represent the population.

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  • Content Analysis

    An analysis technique where written material is broken down into meaningful units using carefully designed rules.

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  • Content Analysis

    A process used to examine a prepared report based on predetermined criteria to ensure that all required information is included in the write-up. Content analysis is often applied to advertising copy.

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  • Content Integration

    The act of combining advertising information with actual web content rather than placing an ad on the site. An example would be to write a report featuring an advertiser to gain exposure for the advertising company by mentioning it and talking about its features.

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  • Contingency

    The difference between an actual frequency and an expected frequency in a table.

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  • Contingency Table

    A cross-tabulation table that contains a cell for every combination of categories of the two variables.

     
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  • Continuous Data

    Data from a measurement scale where it is permissible to calculate intermediate values.

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  • Continuous Panel

    A consumer panel that involves participation from the same respondents repeatedly over time. This contrasts with an ad hoc panel, where a pre-recruited group of willing respondents are used as and when they are required.

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  • Continuous Rating Scale

    A type of non-comparative scale that offers respondents a form of continuum (such as a line) on which to provide a rating of an object according to a criterion.

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  • Continuous Research

    Any research that involves the regular, on-going collection of data, e.g. consumer panels and EPOS data.

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  • Continuous Variable

    A variable that has the potential to represent infinite numbers falling between a given interval. Continuous variables are usually used as part of a measuring process. Grade Point Averages are continuous variables (can exist anywhere between 0.0 and 4.0).

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  • Contrived Observation

    The observation of behaviour in an artificial setting.

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  • Control & Test

    Two study groups are comprised of members from a similar population. One study group will interact with a stimulus while the second study group will not receive that stimulus. The first group is the test group, and the second group is the control group.

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  • Control Cell

    A group of respondents that receives the normal (or no) treatment and provides a basis of comparison to the test or experimental group that receives the test or experimental treatment.

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  • Control Cell

    Otherwise known as the control group. The control cell does not receive the stimulus that the test group receives. The control cell is compared to the results of the test group.

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  • Controlled Store Test

    A type of research experiment where one group of stores receives a certain treatment (test stores) and another group receives no treatment (control stores). Sales are then measured for each group over an extended period of time to measure the effect of the treatment.

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  • Controlled Substitutions

    Replacing current subjects in a study with a different subject that is consistent with the parameters of the initial subject.

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  • Convenience Sample

    A type of non-probability sample where the units have been selected because they are convenient for the researcher (which may not be the optimum sample for the research project).

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  • Convenience Sample

    A non-random sample that is collected based on those units that are made easily available to the researchers. There are no quotas or qualifications necessary for sample selection in a convenience sample.

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  • Convergent Validity

    The ability of a measurement scale to correlate (or converge) with other measures of the same variable.

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  • Convergent Validity

    Understanding how constructs that should be related to one another actually are related to one another through measurement processes that prove the relationships.

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  • Cookie File

    A computer file that is secretly added to the hard disk of someone who visits a website that sends them. Their purpose is to track website visitors, however the use of cookies in marketing research is not approved by ESOMAR.

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  • Cooperation Rate

    The proportion of eligible respondents who, having been contacted, agree to participate in a research study. The cooperation rate is impacted by the length of the interview, the subject matter, and the type of person being interviewed.

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  • Copy Point Recall

    An advertising research measure of a respondent's ability to remember a particular message, slogan, or theme etc from a commercial.

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  • Copy Testing

    The process of determining the level of understanding, impact, awareness, and credibility that your advertisement generates.

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  • Corporate Marketing Research Department

    An internal department that conducts research in order to sustain and improve their company's marketing effectiveness.

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  • Correlation

    The existence of a relationship between two variables (which may or may not be a causal relationship - correlation on its own does not infer causality).

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  • Correlation Analysis

    A statistical technique that helps in determining the strength of the relationship between variables.

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  • Correlation Coefficient

    A statistic that is calculated to determine whether a linear relationship exists between two metric variables and it takes values between -1 and +1 (depending on the degree of the relationship). A negative value indicates that the variables move in opposite directions and a positive value indicates that they move in the same direction. A value of 0 indicates that there is no linear relationship (although there may be a non-linear relationship).

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  • Correspondence Analysis

    A perceptual mapping technique that is based on data where respondents are asked to identify only the attributes that relate to (or correspond with) the subject of the study.

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  • Cost Per Interview (CPI)

    The dollar value of completing an interview in a survey research project. Determined by dividing the total budget for a project by the number of completed interviews.

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  • Council of American Survey Research Organisations (CASRO)

    A trade organisation for those who are actively involved or concerned with marketing and opinion research.

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  • Counter-Biasing

    A technique that is used to increase respondents’ willingness to answer questions honestly. Questions are prefaced with statements that attempt to justify an answer that may go against social group norms, e.g. “recent surveys have indicated that the majority of people have difficulty saving every month”.

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  • Covariance

    The extent of a relationship between two variables, whereby a change in one variable implies a change in the other.

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  • Covariate

    A metric independent variable (i.e. based on data that can be analysed such as that from an interval or a ratio scale).

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  • Coverage

    The proportion (usually expressed as a percentage) of a population of interest that has been exposed to a particular advertisement.

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  • CPH

    Completes per hour.

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  • Creative Development Research

    A type of qualitative research that is used to formulate advertising. It can work at three stages in the advertising development process:

    1. Defining the strategy - i.e. what should the advertising be saying?
    2. Defining the execution - i.e. how should it be said?
    3. Testing a chosen execution.
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  • Criterion Related Validity

    The effectiveness of forecasting a criterion variable using a measurement instrument.

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  • Criterion Variables

    Variables in a study that the researchers are examining in an effort to understand the causes behind past performances as well as predicting future results. Can be called the dependent variable as well.

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  • Critical Industry Restriction

    Respondents might be disqualified for the survey research based upon their industry of employment. It is typical that the research study excludes those participants that are employed in the industry related to the research subject matter.

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  • Cross-Cultural Analysis

    The collection and analysis of data from different countries (or cultural units) that compares the findings from different countries.

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  • Cross-Elasticity

    Consumer behavior that proves which products are acceptable substitutes for one another. Marketers attempt to reduce cross-elasticity by differentiating their products and by establishing brand equity.

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  • Cross-Sectional Design

    A research design that involves the collection of data from a sample only once.

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  • Cross-Tabulation

    A process used to analyze data that attempts to better understand the results of a survey by comparing the answers of one question to the way each respondent answered one or more questions on the rest of the survey. Crosstab can generate statistical outputs from research tables.

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  • Cross-Validation

    Cross-Validation is a test of validity for a regression model that involves using comparable data to check the validity of an original estimation.

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  • Culture

    The total sum of learned beliefs, values, and customs that serve to regulate the consumer behaviour of members of a particular society.

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  • Current Population Survey (CPS)

    A monthly survey administered by the United States Census Bureau to 60,000 households in an effort to monitor changes that occur between the decennial censuses.

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  • Custom Marketing Research

    Market research that is tailored to a specific client's needs.

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  • Customer Relationship Management/Marketing (CRM)

    A method of identifying and creating a relationship with long-term customers through customer service techniques that track information about a given customer such as their activities and preferences. Customer feedback research is important intelligence for improved CRM.

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  • Customer Satisfaction Research

    Conducted research to better understand how satisfied customers are with particular products or services and the attributes of the product or service.

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  • Data

    A set of observations.

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  • Data

    Data are research facts that are based on respondents’ answers to questions.

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  • Data Cleaning

    Editing involves examining each completed questionnaire to ensure that the proper sequence of questions has been asked, the answers are clear and consistent, and they have been correctly marked.

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  • Data Collection

    The gathering of information (figures, words, or responses) that describe some situation from which conclusions can be drawn. The gathering of information from administered questionnaires.

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  • Data Collection Company

    The enterprise or agency that supplies trained interviewers for clients and receives payment for services delivered. The service is responsible for hiring and training of interviewers, executing a client's job exactly as specified, editing, and validating each interviewer's completed assignment. Services can operate with interviewers who work exclusively for them or interviewers who work with them as well as other services in the area.

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  • Data Collection Instrument

    Any device used to gather information from a respondent, for example, questionnaires, computers, tape recorders, or video tape machines.

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  • Data Deck

    A complete set of responses in a given study.

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  • Data Entry

    The act of inputting data into a database.

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  • Data Entry

    The organizing procedure that allows for the collection of data to be analyzed. The process involves recording, classifying, sorting,summarizing, calculating, disseminating, and storing data.

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  • Data Mining

    Data mining is the ability to query large data sets. This requires advanced skills and is a promising solution.

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  • Data Processing

    Research that attempts to explain the relationship between two variables (if A causes B to occur).

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  • Data Processing

    The counting and tabulation of raw facts (i.e. data) into a form that is suitable for future use. This term is usually associated with computer tabulations.

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  • Data Protection

    National and international laws that cover the appropriate and required methods to be used in protecting data privacy. Organizations also have guidelines to be followed for data privacy, in which companies must adhere to the guidelines in order to be associated with the organization (see ESOMAR and ARF).

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  • Data Reduction Plan

    A set of instructions for editing and coding the questionnaire and specifies how the data should be evaluated for inconsistencies, skipped questions, etc, and then verified.

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  • Data User News

    The United States Census Bureau's monthly newsletter.

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  • Data Warehouse

    A data warehouse is a massive collection of essential business intelligence. The use of data warehouse is evolving to include operational and analytic data.

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  • Database

    A centrally held collection of data that allows access and manipulation by one or more users.

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  • Database Management Software

    Computer-run software that manages data and allows for saving and updating the data so that the data can effectively be used and manipulated at a later date.

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  • Day After Recall

    A standard measure of the impact of a TV commercial where respondents’ recollection of a commercial is tested the day after they are exposed to it.

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  • Day-After Recall

    A measurement tool for advertisers that measures a proportion of the population that remembers a specific television ad within 24 hours of its initial airing.

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  • Daytime Population

    The population during the daytime hours in a particular area as opposed to those that live in a particular area (measured by the United States Census Bureau).

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  • Deadline

    The date when an assignment must be completed.

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  • Debranding

    The removal of brand names, packaging, or other material that would enable research participants to identify a brand.

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  • Debrief

    The presentation of research findings to clients.

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  • Debriefing

    An in-depth conversation with interviewers at the conclusion of a study. The interviewer plays back his/her impressions of the respondent's feelings about specific questions. This technique is often used immediately after a pre-test of a questionnaire. The information provides the researcher with insights necessary to revise or refine the final questionnaire and/or future studies.

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  • Decennial Census

    A census that is conducted every ten years during the beginning of the decade.

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  • Decentralised Research Function

    Where the marketing researchers are spread throughout an organisation and are not located together.

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  • Deductive Research

    See Conclusive Research.

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  • Deduping

    Removing potential respondents from the research sample.

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  • Degrees of Freedom

    Degrees of Freedom refers to the number of ways in which values could be assigned within a system. For example a table of observations with p rows and q columns has (p-1)(q-1) degrees of freedom. (In a sample of size n grouped into k intervals, there are always (k-1) degrees of freedom, because if (k-1) frequencies are specified, the other is determined by the total size n.)

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  • Deliberated Poll

    Respondents are polled twice to measure changes in opinion. The first poll gauges their overall opinions. The respondents then are provided some more information relevant to the topic and are then polled for a second time. Changes in opinion are then examined.

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  • Delphi Approach

    An approach to forecasting where a group of people produce separate forecasts and then each member is given information about the other forecasts and asked to revise their original estimate. The objective of the approach is to converge forecast estimates.

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  • Delphi Technique

    A long-term forecasting technique that allows for expert judgment without empirical data. There are three stages to this technique. First, experts are anonymously polled. Next, the results are distributed to the group of experts who are then individually polled again after seeing their colleague's opinions. The process is repeated until the group arrives at a general consensus about the issue at hand.

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  • Demand Artifacts

    The responses given when respondents attempt to guess the purpose of the questions being asked. Demand artifacts can be the result of experimental conditions.

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  • Demand Bias

    Corruption of the research when the respondents assume to know or actually know the research agenda. This can occur when the research sponsor is revealed to the respondents.

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  • Demographic Information

    Based on the age, gender, life-cycle stage, income, and occupation of consumers.

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  • Demographics

    Statistics that describe a population's objective or quantifiable characteristics. Examples of demographics include age, sex, birth and mortality rates, income, marital status, occupation, and household characteristics.

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  • Demography

    The study of an area's characteristics which include its size, structure, and changes to specific populations.

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  • Dendogram

    A diagram that shows a hierarchy and the relation of subsets in a structure. It branches like a tree and is usually read downwards from the main trunk.

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  • Density

    A measurement to identify the crowdedness in a given area by computing the total population of the geographic unit and dividing it by the land area (usually in miles or kilometers).

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  • Deontology

    A non-consequential approach to evaluating ethics, whereby the degree of ethicalness depends on the intentions behind the decisions rather than the outcomes or actions that result.

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  • Dependence Techniques

    Dependence Techniques are types of multivariate analysis techniques that are used when one or more of the variables can be identified as dependent variables and the remaining variables can be identified as independent.

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  • Dependency

    When one variable is influenced to an extent by another variable.

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  • Dependent Variable

    A concept that's value changes as an independent variable changes. Statistics are used to explain the strength of the relationship between the two variables. Can also be called a criterion variable.

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  • Dependent Variable

    Usually denoted as y, a variable that is influenced to some extent by one or more other (independent) variables.

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  • Depth Interview

    A type of qualitative research involving an unstructured personal interview with a single respondent, conducted by a highly skilled interviewer. The purpose of in-depth interviews is to understand the underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings of respondents on a particular subject.

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  • Depth Interview

    Interviews that exist between a respondent and an interviewer in which the interviewer asks probing questions to really understand the participants motivations by using non-directive techniques.

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  • Descriptive Function

    Data that is collected to provide facts rather than causal or exploratory research.

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  • Descriptive Research

    A form of conclusive research that aims to describe a product or market or identify associations among variables.

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  • Descriptive Studies

    Studies that cover the basic who, what, when, where, and how questions.

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  • Design

    The framework for conducting a market research project that specifies how information will be collected and analysed to answer the questions at hand.

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  • Design Control

    A pre-experiment set-up designed to reduce or eliminate extraneous causal factors.

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  • Designated Marketing Area (DMA)

    An area that represents the way that NPD/Nielsen measures its television market audiences.

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  • Desk Research

    The systematic examination of all available secondary data in the context of a particular marketing research problem.

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  • Deviation

    The difference between the mean and an observed value.

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  • Diad

    A type of qualitative research involving an unstructured personal interview with a single respondent, conducted by a highly skilled interviewer. The purpose of in-depth interviews is to understand the underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings of respondents on a particular subject.

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  • Diagnostic Function

    A diagnosis or identification of a problem that is supported by data or actions.

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  • Diary

    A log where facts are recorded relating to a respondent's experiences with a subject or product. Diaries can also be a record of regular purchases or viewing habits and they are often given to respondents when they receive a product to use at home.

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  • Diary Panel

    A group of respondents that are asked to keep journals on their buying, watching, or listening habits over a period of time.

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  • Diary Panel

    A type of consumer panel where participants record activities or events in a diary.

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  • Dichotomous Questions

    Questions that offer only two possible responses. Examples would be yes/no or agree/disagree questions.

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  • Dig

    The asking of additional questions to encourage a respondent to enlarge on a particular answer or opinion so that their answer can be further understood by the researcher.

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  • Digital Signatures

    A way to electronically prove the sender of an email or electronic document. The digital signatures authenticate the sender and can therefore legally endorse contracts and agreements.

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  • Digitizing

    A system that involves identifying coordinates of a market area as latitude and longitude, and then being able to return and re-identify each twist and turn that the market makes.

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  • Direct Computer Interviewing

    Interviews that are conducted entirely on a computer (questions are asked and responses are accepted). Respondents are usually recruited and complete the interview at a central location.

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  • Direct Observation

    Direct Observation is when behavior or events are observed while something is happening.

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  • Direct Paired Comparison

    A question that directs the respondent to make a comparison between two objects, e.g. "which of these two products do you prefer?".

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  • Direct Question

    A question to research participants about their own behavior (as opposed to an indirect question that asks them about the behavior of other people).

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  • Direct Questioning Techniques

    Ways of asking people directly for information, such as personal or telephone interviews and mail surveys.

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  • Directory Database

    A collection of data that is kept in an index or directory so that that it can be easily revisited.

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  • Disappointment Score

    Study results that reveal the proportion of respondents that claim that they would not buy a product even after trying that product.

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  • Disc

    The accepted abbreviation to indicate that a phone number has been disconnected, usually noted on the dialing report by the interviewer.

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  • Discrete Data

    Discrete Data is that from a measurement scale consisting of a number of separate values where intermediate values are not permissible, e.g. the number of cars per household.

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  • Discrete Variable

    A quantitative variable that has a set amount of possibilities as opposed to continuous variables which have an infinite set. An example would be the number of individuals in a family.

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  • Discretionary Income

    An individual's income after taxes and necessities are accounted for. This amount is available for consumer spending and is also referred to as disposable income.

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  • Discriminant Analysis

    An analysis technique where the dependent variable is non-metric (i.e. nominal or ordinal in nature) and the independent variables are metric (i.e. interval or ratio in nature).

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  • Discriminant Analysis

    A technique used to understand a set of independent variables and their ability to predict outcomes of dependent variables.

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  • Discriminant Coefficient

    The value that is placed in front of the independent variable and describes the level of affect that the variable carries.

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  • Discriminant Score

    A value that is assigned to an object which then determines which group the object will belong to.

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  • Discriminant Validity

    The idea that two constructs that are supposed to be different are in fact observed to be different.

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  • Discussion Guide

    An outline of the subjects to be discussed during group discussions and/or in-depth interviews. This tool provides the moderator with a list of subject matter for the discussion group or focus group. This process allows for flexibility as the moderator is not constrained by a structured questionnaire.

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  • Discussion Question

    An open-ended question that does not have a set amount of responses available, but allows the respondent to share all that comes to mind in order for them to answer the question in their own words.

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  • Disguised Observation

    The observation of behaviour without participants’ knowledge.

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  • Disguised Observation

    An observation in which the people, objects, or occurrences do not know that they are being monitored.

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  • Disguised Questioning

    Any form of questioning where respondents are unaware of the true purpose of the questions.

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  • Disk-by-Mail (DBM)

    A survey that is distributed through the mail by a disk, and participants complete the survey on their own computers.

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  • Display

    Provided by the client to help the respondent picture or understand the product/ideas under discussion.

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  • Disposable Income

    The amount of money that individuals have after removing taxes and other required payments. Disposable income is then available to spend as the consumer wishes. 

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  • Disposition

    The result of an attempt to reach or contact a potential respondent.

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  • Disproportional Allocation

    Sampling that attempts to represent the true population by means of proportions of individuals with given characteristics. Disproportional refers to a non-representative sample and optimal refers to a well represented sample.

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  • Disproportionate Stratified Sample

    A type of probability sample where the probability of a unit being selected from a stratum is not proportional to the number of units in the strata. This sampling approach is used when there are strata in the population of interest that are quite small but very important and they may not be adequately represented in a survey if other sampling approaches are used.

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  • Disqualifier

    An answer to a question that makes the respondent ineligible to participate in the research project.

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  • Distribution

    A frequency or percentage table showing how a set of respondents is divided into various categories, e.g. percent who bought 1-5 times, 6-10 times, 11+ times.

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  • Distribution Check

    The ability to study a particular product and have information available for the product such as how many stores carry it, the number of facings, special displays, and the prices associated with the particular product.

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  • DK (Don't Know)

    The abbreviation recorded when a respondent lacks the knowledge to provide an answer to a question.

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  • Door-to-Door Interviewing

    Interviews that are conducted face to face in the consumer's homes.

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  • Door-to-Door Survey

    A survey where the interviews are conducted in pre-selected areas involving knocking on the doors of homes to find qualified respondents.

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  • Double Blind Test

    A product test where both the researcher administering the test and the participants are unaware of the complete identity of the products being tested.

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  • Double Jeopardy

    A reality for small brands in which their products are purchased less frequently and by a smaller group of people.

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  • Double Sampling

    A sample that is pulled from an existing larger sample because of the inexpensive first sample. The sub-sample is then selected from the larger sample based on desired population characteristics.

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  • Double-Barrelled Questions

    Double-barrelled questions are those that ask two questions at the same time. They can confuse respondents and answers to such questions are uninterpretable, because it is not possible to determine to which question the answer refers.

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  • Drop Off/Out

    Respondents that leave the survey prior to termination or survey completion.

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  • Dropout Rate

    The is the amount of respondents that start a research survey, but these respondents cannot be identified as completing the survey, being screened out, or are members of the over quota.

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  • Dual Moderator Group

    A group discussion with two moderators, each moderator having a different role, e.g. one to ensure the smooth running of the group and the other to discuss or explain key issues.

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  • Dummy Variables

    A way of re-specifying categorical variables in data analysis by giving them either of two values (e.g. 0 or 1).

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  • Duplicate Number Validation

    A procedure used during focus group recruiting that collects names and phone numbers for future focus group participants, and verifies that the screened individual has not participated recently in more focus groups than what is desired.

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  • Dyad

    Qualitative research where two participants are being interviewed by a single interviewer. This method of research is common when the respondents are relatively equal as far as their ability to make purchase decisions for a company.

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  • E-Spread

    The distance between the first and seventh sample eighths.

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  • E-Tailer

    An online retailer that exists only online and does not have a physical store location.

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  • Econometrics

    The analysis of economic systems containing supply and demand data using statistical models.

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  • Edit Instructions

    A set of instructions for editing and coding the questionnaire and specifies how the data should be evaluated for inconsistencies, skipped questions, etc, and then verified.

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  • Editing

    A system of checking and verifying that questionnaires were properly completed and accurate to the respondent’s best knowledge.

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  • Editing

    Editing involves examining each completed questionnaire to ensure that the proper sequence of questions has been asked, the answers are clear and consistent, and they have been correctly marked.

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  • Effect Variable

    Usually denoted as y, a variable that is influenced to some extent by one or more other (independent) variables.

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  • Efficiency

    The ability of the sample to truly represent a population.

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  • Elasticity

    A measurement that explains the volume of the shift in a single variable as a response to movement of another variable.

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  • Electroencephalogram (EEG)

    A device used to measure and record electrical activity in one’s brain.

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  • Electronic Customer Relationship Marketing (eCRM)

    The use of CRM to both customers of online companies and to use the Internet as part of a normal company’s CRM program.

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  • Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

    EDI is a well-established form of electronic commerce that has traditionally taken place over proprietary networks. One way of reducing the cost of EDI, and making it more accessible to smaller companies, is to migrate EDI standards to the Internet. Various systems are currently competing to offer this service.

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  • Electronic Data Processing (EDP) Systems

    Computer processing that is able to manipulate raw data and uncover relationships with little intrinsic value. Declarative and summary reports can be produced using electronic data processing.

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  • Element Sampling

    Random sampling which gives an equal chance to each unit of a population of being selected.

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  • Eligibility Criteria

    Specified characteristics that potential participants must possess in order to be involved in a particular research project.

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  • Eligible Respondent

    A person who meets certain criteria set for a particular study and thus qualifies to be included in the study. Respondents may be qualified on such characteristics as age, income, brand used, etc.

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  • Empty Nesters

    Those people whose children have left or are about to leave the family home.

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  • Enabling Techniques

    A form of disguised questioning that encourages participants to attribute their feelings, beliefs, or motivations to another person, object, or situation. Examples of projective techniques are word association, sentence completion, and thematic apperception tests.

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  • End Piling

    A phenomenon where many survey responses fall into just a few categories at the end of a measurement scale.

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  • Enumeration Districts (EDs)

    Areas that are defined by the Census and generally contain 500 inhabitants.

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  • EPOS Data

    Electronic Point Of Sale Data measures sales of products as they are being paid for by consumers.

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  • Epsem Sample

    A sample that allows each unit the same probability of being selected (with non-zero probabilities).

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  • Equivalent Form Reliability

    A testing method using two similar instruments to obtain the same or very similar measurements of a single object.

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  • Error

    The difference between the true value of a parameter in the population and a value derived from a survey. Total error is the sum of the sampling and non-sampling errors in a survey.

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  • Error Checking Routines

    Computer programs that accept instructions from the user to check for logical errors in the data.

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  • Error Sum of Squares

    Any variation that is not known to be caused by regression.

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  • ESOMAR

    ESOMAR is the European based international association of market researchers. Amongst many other activities, ESOMAR issues guidelines on the conduct of market research, and these guidelines are binding on it members. These guidelines include sections on using the Internet for market research.

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  • ESOMAR

    ESOMAR is the world association of research professionals. Founded in 1948 as the European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research - ESOMAR unites more than 4,800 members from over 120 countries, both users and providers of opinion and marketing research. ESOMAR's mission is to promote the use of opinion and market research for improving decision-making in business and society world-wide.

    Our address is:
    Eurocenter 2, 11th floor
    Barbara Strozzilaan
    384 1083 HN Amsterdam
    The Netherlands
    Phone: +31 20 664 2141

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  • ESOMAR/ARF

    The most important guidelines for researchers using the Internet are those provided by ESOMAR and ARF. These rules include guidance on providing Privacy Policies, of the special rules for interviewing children, and the need to avoid spam. The guidelines can be downloaded from ESOMAR.

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  • Estimate

    A value that is projected to a population’s parameter after examining a statistical sample.

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  • Ethnography

    Ethnography is a qualitative method of studying and learning about a person or group of people. Typically, ethnography involves the study of a small group of subjects in their own environment. To develop an understanding of what it is like to live in a setting, the researcher must both become a participant in the life of the setting while also maintaining the stance of an observer, someone who describes the experience. Rather than looking at a small set of variables and a large number of subjects ("the big picture"), the ethnographer attempts to get a detailed understanding of the circumstances of the few subjects being studied. Ethnographic accounts, then, are both descriptive and interpretive; descriptive, because detail is so crucial, and interpretive, because the ethnographer must determine the significance of what she observes without gathering broad, statistical information. The term ethnography may be loosely applied to any qualitative research project where the purpose is to provide a detailed, in-depth description. This is sometimes referred to as "thick description." The use of the term "qualitative" here is meant to distinguish this research from more "quantitative" or statistically oriented research. The two approaches, i.e., quantitative and qualitative, while often complimentary, ultimately have different aims.

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  • Evaluate Research

    A research process used to identify the levels of effectiveness and efficiency in certain programs.

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  • Event (simple)

    A sample’s subset. Events that are simple contain only a single outcome as a result of that event. An example would be in rolling a die, only a single outcome is allowed, this set of outcomes consists of six simple events (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).

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  • Evoked Set

    The set of alternatives that potential consumers would consider when buying a product or service.

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  • Exchange

    Defined as the prefix (first three numbers) of a telephone number. The numbers represent the town, community or neighborhood that the telephone number is assigned.

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  • Executive Interviews

    Interviews with business people or experts within a particular field. Executive interviews are often used where the majority of knowledge of a subject is held by a minority of people.

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  • Executive Summary

    A document that summarises all the sections of a market research report. It includes the basis for why the research was performed, the results that concluded from the research and where they will take the company, and what moves the management should make to best react to the research findings.

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  • Exhibit

    Anything that is on display during a qualitative discussion with respondents. Examples could include posters, advertisements, category lists, or television clips. Exhibits are also referred to as external stimuli.

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  • Exhibits/Exhibit Cards

    Printed cards, pictures, statements, actual products or advertisements given or shown to a respondent during the course of an interview, and usually relating to specific questions within the questionnaire. These aid the respondent in answering the question.

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  • Expected Value

    A probability distribution’s mean value. It represents that value that the sample is expected to take in the long run.

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  • Expected Value

    Expected Value in a cross-tabulation is the number of objects one would expect to find after multiplying the probabilities of the row and the column in the table (which may be different to the observed value).

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  • Experience Survey

    A survey involving participants who have knowledge of a particular situation.

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  • Experiencing Focus Groups

    Qualitative research that allows clients to observe and hear consumer’s thoughts and opinions regarding the client’s product or service.

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  • Experiment

    A set of observations that are performed in an attempt to solve a question or problem. The process of manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effect on one or more dependent variables, while controlling for external variables.

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  • Experimental Design

    A set of experimental procedures specifying: the test units, sampling procedures, independent variables, dependent variables and how external variables are to be controlled. A research design which allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variables and observe the reactions caused by such changes.

     
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  • Experimental Effect

    The result that occurs to the dependent variable after the treatment variable has been altered.

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  • Experimental Error

    The error caused by the conditions of the experiment itself and it creates uncertainty that the observed effects may not be due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

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  • Experimental Treatments

    The different conditions created by manipulating the independent variable.

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  • Experimental Unit

    The smallest base object that is targeted during an experiment. Can also be referred to as a unit, subject, participant, respondent, or unit of analysis.

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  • Experimental Units

    The objects or people who are part of the experiment.

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  • Expert Opinion Survey

    A form of exploratory research that involves discussing a research problem with someone (or a group of people) with experience on a particular subject.

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  • Exploratory Focus Groups

    Qualitative research that brings concepts to a group of people so that they can address customer needs, concepts for new products, or evaluate existing products.

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  • Exploratory Research

    The most basic level of research that is performed to clarify the exact problem at hand. The initial investigation of a problem that uses unstructured techniques (such as group discussions or in-depth interviews) in order to develop hypotheses and/or understand a problem further.

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  • Exponential Smoothing

    A statistical technique that calculates a moving average where the most recent data are given a different weight to earlier data. Simply data recorded by time intervals.

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  • Expressive Drawing

    A qualitative technique in which the moderator asks the participants to illustrate their feelings toward a particular product or service by creating a picture.

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  • Extended Group Discussion

    A group discussion that has been designed to last around 3-4 hours (compared with the usual time of around an hour and a half).

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  • Extended Use Test

    A home use test involves participants evaluating products in their own homes, or more generally, in a natural usage environment. The purpose of the test is to make an evaluation of a product after more experience with it than just some initial use.

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  • External Secondary Data

    Existing data that have already been collected by other organisations.

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  • External Stimuli

    Physical objects that are presented in focus groups to so that the respondent’s reactions can be measured. 

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  • External Validity

    The extent to which experimental results can be projected to a population of interest.

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  • External Validity

    The reality in which measured causal relationships in an experiment can be applied to uninvolved people, times, and settings.

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  • External Variables

    Factors that are not manipulated as part of an experiment, but they may exert some influence on the dependent variable under study.

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  • Extraneous Variables

    Factors that are not manipulated as part of an experiment, but they may exert some influence on the dependent variable under study.

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  • Eye Tracking Research

    Eye Tracking Research involves the use of various mechanical devices to record participants’ eye movements when they are looking at some form of stimulus (such as a press advert in a newspaper).

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  • F Test

    A statistical test of the equality of the variances of two populations.

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  • F-Test

    A statistical probability test measuring a calculated value’s ability to occur due to chance.

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  • Face Validity

    Determining that a measurement truly represents that which it is intended to measure.

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  • Fact

    A statement that is objectively true and can be verified.

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  • Factor

    An underlying construct defined by a linear combination of variables.

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  • Factor

    The independent variable which is subject to being manipulated by the researcher so that different results may be observed.

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  • Factor Analysis

    A search performed by researchers through rating scales that allow another smaller set of factors or composite variables to emerge and can then identify underlying information.

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  • Factor Analysis

    A form of multivariate analysis that takes a large number of variables or objects and aims to identify a small number of factors that explain the interrelations among the variables or objects.

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  • Factor Loading

    The correlation (or regression weight) of a variable with a factor.

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  • Factor Loadings

    The identified correlation taking place between the original variables and each factor score.

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  • Factorial Design

    A type of statistical experimental design where units are assigned to groups that represent all possible combinations of the independent variables of interest.

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  • Factory Staff

    Those who are mainly involved with conducting marketing research and have limited contact with research clients.

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  • False Accuracy

    A misleading statistic that fails to be accurate because of some missing detail. For example, .78 and .7899 represent different probabilities.

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  • Family

    Officially defined by the Census Bureau as two or more persons that live together in one household that are related by birth, marriage, or adoption. A one-person household or multiple unrelated persons do not constitute a family.

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  • Female Head-of-Household (FHH)

    The woman most responsible for maintaining the household. May or may not be the primary wage earner.

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  • Fertility Rate

    Generally given based on the number of births per year by 1,000 women who are between 15 and 44 years old. A total fertility rate refers to how many live births occurred per 1,000 women at some point in their lifetimes.

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  • Field

    The physical location where the interviewing takes place.

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  • Field Director

    The person who is responsible for selecting, hiring, and training interviewers. He or she is also responsible for the data collection phase of the survey and following the agreed instructions.

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  • Field Experiment

    An experiment conducted in a natural setting (where the external validity is usually higher than the internal validity).

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  • Field Experiments

    Research conducted in the actual setting environment (i.e. outside of the laboratory).

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  • Field Force

    Interviewers and supervisors who are involved in data collection.

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  • Field Management Companies

    Companies that act as subcontractors to collect data, format questionnaires, and screen write for market research firms.

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  • Field Service

    The process of collecting survey data.

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  • Field Service

    The enterprise or agency that supplies trained interviewers for clients and receives payment for services delivered. The service is responsible for hiring and training of interviewers, executing a client's job exactly as specified, editing, and validating each interviewer's completed assignment. Services can operate with interviewers who work exclusively for them or interviewers who work with them as well as other services in the area.

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  • Field Supervisor

    The person who is responsible for selecting, hiring, and training interviewers. He or she is also responsible for the data collection phase of the survey and following the agreed instructions.

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  • Fieldwork

    A general term that refers to any data gathering process.

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  • Filter Question

    A question in a questionnaire to ensure that respondents meet the required criteria for a subsequent question (or questions) in a survey.

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  • Final Report

    A complete description of the research for the client after the research has been conducted. A typical report would include a summary of the methodologies used, key findings, and interpretations drawn from the collected data that would aid the company in future success. Recommendations for future action may also be included in this report.

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  • Findings

    Information that answers a research question.

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  • Findings

    Reported in the final report as the facts that were uncovered during the research. There should not be an interpretation of the facts in the findings section of the final report.

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  • Finite Population Correction Factor (FPC)

    A noted adjustment to a required sample size when the sample needs to be greater than or equal to a stated percentage of the total population.

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  • Fixed Field Code

    A code in which the number of records for each respondent is the same and the same data appear in all the same columns for all respondents.

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  • Fixed Personality Association

    A qualitative technique used by a moderator where images of people, places, or things are shown to participants and they are then asked to interpret the pictures around a given topic. The same images are shown in several sessions to different respondents so that results can be applied as norms.

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  • Fixed Sample

    The repeated observation of the same sample of respondents over a period of time.

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  • Focus Group

    A marketing research technique for qualitative data that involves a small group of people (6-10) that share a common set characteristics (demographics, attitudes, etc.) and participate in a discussion of predetermined topics led by a moderator. There are opportunities to conduct focus groups with the use of focus group software.

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  • Focus Group Facility

    A central location in which focus groups are held. Conference rooms are connected to observation rooms by a two-way mirror so that researchers can observe the respondent’s words and actions. Facilities also offer services that might include focus group recruiting, food for participants, competitive product samples, and/or session videotaping.

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  • Focus Group Interview

    A type of qualitative research that consists of an informal discussion of a particular topic with a small number of selected participants (usually 8-12). The discussion is guided by a skilled moderator who does not influence the outcome, but ensures that all the subject areas are discussed by the group and the views of the participants are as clear as possible. The ideal number of participants depends on the subject matter being discussed, e.g. complex subjects may be better discussed with fewer participants - possibly 4-6.

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  • Focus Group Moderator

    The trained professional that leads the focus group and is appointed by the client.

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  • Folder Test

    A qualitative press advertising test where the advertising is placed in a folder with competitive advertising (and editorial extracts) and respondents are asked to page through it.

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  • Forced Exposure

    Forced Exposure is when research participants are exposed to some advertising in a contrived way (such as in a hall test or a focus group) as opposed to an on-air test where participants see the advertising in a natural setting (such as in their own homes).

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  • Forced Rating Scale

    A scale that does not allow a neutral or no opinion choice.

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  • Forecast

    An estimate on future occurrences based on past performance data. Projections are often made about trends such as births, deaths, or migration or demographic characteristics as in population growth rates.

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  • Forecasting

    An expected future result based on birth, death, and migration assumptions to describe a particular demographic characteristic for population or number of households.

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  • Frame Error

    An inaccurate or incomplete sample frame that results in an error.

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  • Frequency

    The average number of times an advert has been exposed to a specified television audience or universe.

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  • Frequency

    The numerical value assigned to how often an event occurs, sometimes within a given time period.

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  • Frequency Distribution

    A representation of the number of counts of objects or responses, usually in the form of a table or graph.

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  • Fresh Participants

    Recruits that are participating in a focus group for the first time or have not participated for several years.

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  • Friendliness Effect

    A systematic bias caused by some respondents tending to agree with whatever is presented to them. Such a bias may be caused by either respondents or interviewers being overly friendly during interviews.

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  • Friendship Pair Interview

    A type of depth interview where there are two respondents (instead of the usual one). Friendship pair interviewing is often used for research with children and young people (where they know each other) in order to avoid respondents being intimidated and biasing their responses accordingly.

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  • Front-of-Mind Awareness

    A measure of how readily a brand name or concept comes to respondent' minds. It is the first answer to questions such as unaided brand awareness.

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  • Frugging

    Fund raising under the guise of research. It is one of the reasons why potential participants in market research projects are reluctant to take part.

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  • Full Group

    A focus group comprised of 8-10 respondents. Mini-groups consist of less than 8 participants.

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  • Full Service (F.S.) Research Company

    A company hired by a manufacturer or service company to design and manage the implementation of a research project, as well as analyze and interpret the data. The full service company may collect the data themselves or hire a data collection company for this phase of a project.

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  • Full Service Agency/ Supplier

    A company that is hired to design, manage, and implement a research project, as well as analyse and interpret the data. The company may collect the data themselves or hire a data collection company for this phase of a project.

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  • Full Text Database

    An index with access to full text versions of source documents like articles.

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  • Funnel Approach

    A way of ordering questions in a questionnaire so that general questions are asked before specific questions. This ordering avoids the responses to specific questions biasing the answers to general questions.

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  • Gain Score

    The difference between pre-treatment and post-treatment measurements.

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  • Galvanic Skin Response Meter

    A device that measures changes in the electrical resistance of the skin (due to perspiration).

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  • Generalisability

    The extent to which inferences can be drawn about the population of interest based on the results of some research.

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  • Generation X

    18-29 year old post baby-boomers.

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  • Geocoding

    Physical addresses are segmented by county, MSA, and postal route in order to compare them with information about the demographics and psychographics of those geographies. Geocoding is integral to demographically-enhanced mailing lists and cluster analysis.

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  • Geodemographic Information

    Geodemographic Information is based on a combination of demographics (age, gender, life-cycle stage, and occupation) with geographical area.

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  • Geodemographic Segmentation System

    A multivariate statistical classification technique for discovering whether the individuals of a population fall into different groups by making quantitative comparisons of multiple characteristics.

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  • Geodemographics

    An analysis technique combining geographic and demographic variables.

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  • Geodemography

    The study of population characteristics set within a spatial context.

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  • Geographic Information System

    A business tool for interpreting data that consists of a demographic database, digitized maps, a computer, and software.

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  • Geographics

    Subdividing a list based on geographic or political subdivisions.

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  • Geometric Study Area

    A market site in the shape of a concentric circle or polygon that is to be analyzed.

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  • Goodness of Fit Test

    A statistical test of non-parametric data to determine whether the results from research are consistent with the expected results from a particular hypothesis.

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  • Graphic Rating Scale

    A type of non-comparative scale that offers respondents a form of continuum (such as a line) on which to provide a rating of an object according to a criterion.

     
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  • Graphic Rating Scales

    Graphic continuums anchored by two extremes presented to respondents for evaluation of a concept or object.

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  • Gratuity

    A reward given to participants or businesses for taking the time and trouble to cooperate in a marketing research study.

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  • Grid

    A graphic provided to focus group respondents in conceptual mapping and attitudinal scaling exercises.

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  • Grid Test

    A means of testing more than one variable at a time.

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  • Gross Income

    The total amount of money people have before taxes.

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  • Gross Rating Point

    Television Rating (TVR) = (reach * frequency)

    One TVR represents 1% of a specified television audience or universe seeing an advert at least once. (At extremes, television ratings can be made from either many people seeing an advert only once, or just a few people seeing an advert many times.)

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  • Group Discussion

    A marketing research technique for qualitative data that involves a small group of people (6-10) that share a common set characteristics (demographics, attitudes, etc.) and participate in a discussion of predetermined topics led by a moderator. There are opportunities to conduct focus groups with the use of focus group software.

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  • Group Dynamics

    Group interaction. An effective moderator can enable group dynamics to promote a beneficial discussion.

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  • Group Effect

    A type of bias that occurs in face-to-face group discussions where some participants moderate their opinions in order to go along with a majority view of the rest of the group. The result of a group effect is that a consensus may not be representative of all the opinions present in the group.

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  • Group Interview

    A qualitative research technique involving a discussion with a group of respondents, led by a moderator. Otherwise known as focus groups, group discussions, panels, and group depth interviews.

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  • Groupware

    The computer software that is used to run online group discussions.

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  • Growth Rate

    The total increase or decrease in a population during a given period divided by the average population in that period.

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  • Guesstimate Questionnaire

    Individuals are requested to guess the outcome of the research results. Those predictions are then compared to the actual results of the survey to assess how closely perceptions match reality.

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  • Hall Test

    A Hall Test is where research participants are invited to a central location to participate in some (usually quantitative) market research.

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  • Halo Effect

    A form of response bias where a respondent carries an overall generalized positive or negative impression from one specific characteristic to the next, e.g. if a respondent considers a product to be excellent, then he or she is likely to rate the product highly on taste, appearance, and texture etc.

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  • Hand Tab

    The simplest type of tabulation possible; consists of a manual count of the answers to certain questions on the questionnaires.

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  • Handout Cards

    Printed cards, pictures, statements, actual products, or advertisements given or shown to a respondent during the course of an interview, and usually relating to specific questions within the questionnaire. These aid the respondent in answering the question.

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  • Hash Mark

    A way of tallying or counting by accumulating identical lines into groups of five. Each mark or line represents one respondent or item.

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  • Head of Household

    The member of the household who is responsible for the household having that accommodation, either by owning, renting, or having it rent-free. Where two or more people share this responsibility, the researcher should specify who to include in the study.

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  • Head of Household

    An outdated term of the U.S. Census Bureau. Householder, the new term, is the person who completes the Census Questionnaire.

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  • Health Insurance Portability & Accountability Act

    HIPAA provides the requirements for security and privacy of health data. Before conducting health care research become familiar with HIPAA.

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  • Hedonic Scale

    A scale for measuring general, overall opinion of a product. It indicates the extent of respondents' overall liking or disliking for something, e.g. a product they tasted or a concept they viewed.

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  • Heteroscedasticity

    In regression analysis the condition of nonconstant variance.

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  • Hidden Issue Questioning

    A technique used during depth interviews that aims to identify significant personal views that would otherwise not be revealed by respondents using a direct approach.

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  • Hierarchy-of-Effects Model

    A marketing behavioural response model consisting of stages through which a buyer is presumed to go, including: awareness, knowledge, liking, preference, intention to buy, and purchase.

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  • Histogram

    A vertical bar chart where the height of the bars represents the data.

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  • History

    Changes that occur between the beginning and end of an experiment.

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  • History Error

    History Error occurs in experiments when an unexpected (but significant) effect occurs that has an impact on the dependent variable being measured.

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  • Holistic Test

    A test that aims to assess participants’ reaction to a product or concept as a whole (in contrast to an atomistic test that examines reactions to the individual elements).

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  • Home Audit

    A survey where an interviewer enters a participant’s home to take an inventory of specific products present at that time.

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  • Home Use Test

    A home use test involves participants evaluating products in their own homes, or more generally, in a natural usage environment. The purpose of the test is to make an evaluation of a product after more experience with it than just some initial use.

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  • Homogeneous Groups

    Groups in which the units or individuals have extremely similar characteristics.

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  • Homoscedasticity

    In regression analysis it is the condition of constant variance.

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  • Honorarium

    The incentive for focus group participants. The amount can vary depending upon on the difficulty of recruiting the participants.

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  • Host or Hostess

    The person whose major responsibility is the comfort of clients, guests, and respondents at a focus group or central location test.

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  • Hostess

    The individual responsible for welcoming the focus group participants and for preparing the focus group room. The hostess also provides food for the participants and the client observers, and re-screening respondents.

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  • House to House Distribution

    Delivery of goods or literature to the consumer's front door or mailbox.

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  • Household

    All persons who occupy a housing unit.

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  • Householder

    This is the person in whose name the home is owned or rented, or the individual that completed the survey or interview. The U.S. Census Bureau defines the householder as the person who completed the Census Questionnaire.

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  • Housing Unit

    A house, apartment, group of rooms, or a single room occupied as separate living quarters.

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  • HTML Survey

    A questionnaire that is based on a web site. Potential respondents are invited to participate in the survey (by a banner advert or other message) and then they are given a link to a satellite site where they complete a questionnaire. The survey is completed online and respondents can be offered anonymity.

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  • Humanistic Inquiry

    A research method in which the researcher is immersed in the system or group being studied.

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  • Hypothesis

    An unproven statement that aims to describe a relationship or phenomenon that is relevant to a business.

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  • Hypothesis Test of Proportions

    Test to determine whether the difference between proportions is greater than would be expected because of sampling error.

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  • Hypothesis Testing

    A statistical procedure used to compare a sample mean to a specified value or to compare a pair of sample means.

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  • ICC/ESOMAR International Code on Market and Social Research

    The code of conduct of ESOMAR and sets out the rights and responsibilities of those involved in marketing and social research.

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  • Ideal Population

    The group about whom the researcher wants to know more and from whom a sample will be drawn.

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  • Identification Information

    Identification information lists details such as the name and address of participants in a market research project whereby they can be identified.

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  • Immigration

    Movement of people from one country to another country.

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  • Implicit Alternatives

    Alternatives in a question that are not expressed openly. Such alternatives may have lower chance of being selected and therefore the data may be biased.

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  • Implicit Assumption

    Implicit Assumption is when all respondents are assumed to have the same level of knowledge on a subject. Questions with implicit assumptions can lead to instrument error and/or respondent error.

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  • Implied Population

    The population as suggested by the sample, i.e. it is that part of the population of interest that was available for the research. When a convenience sample is used or where there is sampling frame error, the implied population could be significantly different to the population of interest (or the ideal population).

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  • Imputed Response

    A substitute for a missing response that is based on the pattern of other responses from a survey respondent.

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  • In-Depth Interview

    A type of qualitative research involving an unstructured personal interview with a single respondent, conducted by a highly skilled interviewer. The purpose of in-depth interviews is to understand the underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings of respondents on a particular subject.

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  • In-Home Interview

    Where participants are asked survey questions face-to-face in their own homes.

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  • In-House Recruiting

    The focus group recruiting of people who are physically located within the facility.

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  • In-House Research

    Research that is conducted by the staff in a client company (rather than by an agency).

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  • In-Street Interview

    Where participants are asked survey questions face-to-face in the street.

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  • Inability Error

    Where respondents are unable to answer a particular question. This may be because they have not understood the question, they do not have the information the question requires, they cannot remember the circumstances to which the question refers or they are unable to articulate certain types of responses.

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  • Incentive

    A reward given to participants or businesses for taking the time and trouble to cooperate in a marketing research study. The amount varies depending upon various circumstances.

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  • Incidence

    Any figure referring to the percentage of people in a category.

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  • Incidence

    The proportion of respondents contacted in a survey who qualify for the survey.

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  • Income

    Wage or salary income; self-employment income; interest, dividend, or net rental income; Social Security income; public assistance income; all other income, which includes unemployment compensation, veterans' payment, pensions, & alimony.

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  • Independent Samples

    Measurement of a variable in one population has no effect on the measurement of the variable in the other.

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  • Independent Samples

    Samples that are not linked experimentally and the measurement of one sample has no effect on the others.

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  • Independent Variable

    A variable that exerts some influence on another (dependent) variable. Research experiments usually involve some manipulation of independent variables and measurement of dependent variables to investigate the relationship between them.

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  • Independent Variable

    A variable that is controlled or manipulated by the researcher.

     

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  • Index

    A variable that is determined by dividing one measurement by another, and it is usually expressed as a percentage. Indices can be used to show variations over time, by comparing subsequent measurements of a variable with an initial measurement (an index of 100 indicates no change). Indices can also show the relative incidence of a particular characteristic in two samples, by dividing the percentage of one sample by the other, indices of 120 and over or 80 and below generally indicate above-average and below-average skews respectively.

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  • Indirect Approach

    An approach where the true purpose of a research project is disguised. Indirect approaches are used when revealing the true purpose of the research would bias the responses given by participants.

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  • Indirect Observation

    An observation technique where some record of past behaviour is used to deduce what happened during an event, e.g. looking at packaging usage in a fast food restaurant to understand what flavoured drinks sell the most.

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  • Indirect Question

    A question to research participants that asks them to consider the behaviour of other people instead of their own. The purpose of indirect questions is to avoid bias caused by social group norms and the best light phenomenon.

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  • Inductive Research

    The initial investigation of a problem that uses unstructured techniques (such as group discussions or in-depth interviews) in order to develop hypotheses and/or understand a problem further.

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  • Industrial Survey

    A marketing research study which focuses upon products and services utilized by businesses and manufacturing firms, conducted among respondents employed in such businesses (as opposed to a consumer survey).

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  • Inferential Analysis

    The analysis of data to test a specific hypothesis.

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  • Information

    Information involves the analysis and interpretation of data to describe something about a market.

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  • Informed Consent

    The principle that researchers should try to avoid both uninformed and misinformed participation by subjects in research.

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  • Initial Refusal

    This occurs when a respondent refuses to participate in a survey at the interviewer's initial introductory statement.

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  • Instrument Error

    A type of non-sampling error caused by the survey instrument (or questionnaire) itself, such as unclear wording, asking respondents for information they are unable to supply, or the instrument being changed in some way during the course of the research.

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  • Intended Sample

    The ideal sample for a particular research project (which may be different to the resulting sample).

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  • Interaction Effect

    The effect of all the factors working together, which is greater than the sum of the separate effects.

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  • Interactive Advertising Bureau (IAB)

    The IAB is a US based trade association that promotes and regulates Internet advertising.

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  • Interactive Interviewing

    Asking questions and recording answers via computer.

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  • Interactive Testing Effect

    Pre-test manipulation interaction bias is present when the pre-testing in an experiment heightens participants’ sensitivity and makes them behave in a systematically different way during the experiment that prevents the results being generalised to a population of interest (i.e. it reduces external validity).

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  • Interactive Voice Response (IVR) Research

    Interactive Voice Response (IVR) research allows respondents to take surveys by interacting with a computer using a telephone touch pad instead of a computer keyboard, incoming telephone call, direct mail questionnaire, or face-to-face interview. Respondents call a toll-free phone number, enter a code, and then take a survey. Respondents enter their responses by using the touch-buttons on the phone's keypad. If a "voice capture" feature is used, open-ended responses are digitally recorded when the respondent speaks into the phone's mouthpiece. The data captured are available almost instantaneously to the researcher. A common application of IVR is to combine the technology with a respondent incentive. For example, phone cards, preloaded with a given amount of phone time, are printed with the survey company's name and phone number for respondents to call. The cards are disseminated to the desired respondent universe with instructions that by calling the phone number printed on the card and completing the survey, the respondent will be given the activation number for the free phone minutes. Dissemination of the cards can be by mail or in person, the latter being of particular benefit when trying to research a universe that is gathered in one place for a brief point in time (car races, bars, mall openings, state fairs, etc.). The IVR application works particularly well among respondents who are less likely to be willing to accept telephone/intercept interviews and among respondents who do not have computer or Internet access. Additionally, respondents with literacy limitations and those with language barriers to English are easily accommodated by this technology. It should be noted that IVR research technology can be combined with more traditional research techniques to form a hybrid interview methodology. For example, if certain stimuli need to be presented, such as pictures of new package designs, the stimuli can be provided to the respondent on paper and then the survey administered via IVR.

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  • Intercept

    A recruitment method in which an interviewer contacts potential respondents in a mall or other public location and administers survey.

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  • Intercept Interview

    A type of central location interviewing where respondents are approached (or intercepted) in high traffic locations such as grocery stores or shopping malls. The main part of the interview can take place either on the mall floor or in another location (usually nearby).

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  • Interdependence Techniques

    Types of multivariate analysis techniques that are used where no distinction is made as to which variables are dependent or independent.

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  • Interdependency

    Interdependency is when variables each influence each other to some degree.

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  • Interlocking Quotas

    The numbers of interviews required with participants having several pre-defined characteristics such as age, life-cycle stage, and income level.

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  • Internal Consistency Reliability

    Ability to produce similar results using different samples to measure a phenomenon during the same time period.

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  • Internal Database

    Database developed from data within the organization.

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  • Internal Marketing

    The process of eliciting support for a company and its activities among its own employees, in order to encourage them to promote its goals. This process can happen at a number of levels, from increasing awareness of individual products or marketing campaigns, to explaining overall business strategy.

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  • Internal Secondary Data

    Data that have already been generated and/or collected by a business during its normal course of activity.

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  • Internal Validity

    A measure of the accuracy of an experiment in terms of the degree to which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to manipulations of the independent variable.

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  • Internal Validity

    The extent to which competing explanations for the experimental results observed can be avoided.

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  • Interquartile Range

    A measure of variability and it is the range between the upper and lower quartiles (i.e. the middle 50% of a distribution) and it is equal to the difference between the 75th and the 25th percentile.

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  • Interrupted Time-Series Design

    Research in which the treatment interrupts ongoing repeated measurements.

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  • Interval

    Taking a given number of units equally selected over the full population of study. The nth number interval is derived by dividing the total number of units by the sample number desired.

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  • Interval Estimates

    Inferences regarding the probability that a population value will fall within a certain range.

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  • Interval Scale

    A scale where equal intervals in the scale correspond to equal changes in the characteristic being measured, e.g. temperature scales (Celsius/Fahrenheit). Differences between objects can be analysed statistically (which is not possible with nominal or ordinal scales).

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  • Interval Scale

    Ordinal scale with the additional property that the distance between observations is meaningful. An example would be the temperature.

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  • Interview

    Any form of contact with a respondent in order to collect information for market research purposes (as defined in the ICC/ESOMAR INTERNATIONAL CODE ON MARKET AND SOCIAL RESEARCH).

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  • Interviewee

    The person who is interviewed. No matter what type of survey is being conducted, the person being interviewed is always called the respondent.

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  • Interviewer

    The person responsible for recruiting participants for a focus group or the person administering a questionnaire.

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  • Interviewer Bias

    A type of non-sampling error caused by mistakes made by the interviewer. These may include influencing the respondent in some way, asking questions in the wrong order, or using slightly different phrasing (or tone of voice) than other interviewers. It can include intentional errors such as cheating and fraudulent data entry.

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  • Interviewer Cheating

    Interviewer Cheating is when interviewers knowingly do not follow their instructions.

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  • Interviewer Error

    A type of non-sampling error caused by mistakes made by the interviewer. These may include influencing the respondent in some way, asking questions in the wrong order, or using slightly different phrasing (or tone of voice) than other interviewers. It can include intentional errors such as cheating and fraudulent data entry.

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  • Interviewer's Instructions

    Written directions instructing how to conduct the interview.

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  • Interviewing Service

    The enterprise or agency that supplies trained interviewers for clients and receives payment for services delivered. The service is responsible for hiring and training of interviewers, executing a client's job exactly as specified, editing, and validating each interviewer's completed assignment. Services can operate with interviewers who work exclusively for them or interviewers who work with them as well as other services in the area.

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  • Intra-Cultural Analysis

    The breakdown of data into individual countries (or cultural units) and analysis within each individual country.

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  • Inverted Funnel Approach

    A way of ordering questions in a questionnaire where the specific questions are asked before the general questions. The approach can be useful where respondents do not have strong feelings or a general view on a subject.

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  • Invisible Processing

    The process of collecting information about respondents without their knowledge.

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  • Involvement Device

    A direct marketing technique creating involvement by the respondent through the physical use of an involvement device. Involvement devices typically are tokens or stamps that are used with the marketing material. Publisher's Clearing House is a good example employing this marketing theory.

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  • Itemized Rating Scale

    A type of non-comparative scale where each choice category has some form of description (as opposed to a semantic differential scale, where only the extreme categories are labelled).

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  • Itemized Rating Scales

    Scales in which the respondent selects an answer from a limited number of ordered categories.

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  • Judgement Sample

    A type of non-probability sample where the selection of units is based on the judgement of the researcher.

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  • Judgment Sample

    A non-probability sample comprised of individuals with judgments and attitudes about the subject matter being researched.

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  • Jump Page Ad

    A jump page may be a pop-up window or animation page directing the Internet user to a product or service. This usually occurs when the browser is loading up another page unrelated to the jump page advertisement.

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  • Kelly Repertory Grid

    A qualitative research technique that aims to describe how potential consumers perceive products. Participants are presented with three attributes and they are asked to think of ways in which two are similar to each other but different from the third.

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  • Key Informant Technique

    A form of exploratory research that involves discussing a research problem with someone (or a group of people) with experience on a particular subject.

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  • Key Verifying

    A data entry process involving 2 or more individuals entering the same data for 100% accuracy.

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  • Key Word Recording

    A method used by interviewers to record answers to open-ended questions where only the important words and phrases are recorded.

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  • Keypunch

    The process of punching holes in a card by a machine for data processing.

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  • Keyword

    Keywords are words that have significant relevancy to a specific web page. Keywords are purchased for ad placement on search engines through Pay-Per-Click marketing.

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  • Knowledge Management

    This is a system that affords control, dissemination, and usage of information. This is often a Net-enabled corporate initiative.

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  • Kolmogorov-Smirnov One Sample Test

    A non-parametric goodness-of-fit test that compares the cumulative distribution function for a variable with a specified distribution, based on one sample.

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  • Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

    This test determines if two data sets are significantly different. It answers the question if a sample originates from a population with a specific distribution.

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  • Kolmogorov-Smirnov Two Sample Test

    A non-parametric statistical test to determine whether two distributions are the same. The test takes into account differences in means, dispersion, and skewness.

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  • Kurtosis

    A measure of the relative peakedness or flatness of a distribution curve compared with a normal distribution. A positive Kurtosis value indicates that the distribution is more peaked than a normal distribution. A negative Kurtosis value indicates that the distribution is flatter than a normal distribution.

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  • Labor Force

    Any civilians of working age that are currently employed or seeking employment, and members of the military currently living in the United States.

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  • Labor Force Participation Rates

    An age and sex segment of the population in the labor force as compared to the total population of that segment both in and out of the labor force.

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  • Laboratory Experiment

    An experiment that is conducted in an artificial setting (where the internal validity is usually higher than the external validity).

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  • Laboratory Test Market

    A simulated marketplace situation for new products where consumers are exposed to advertising and visit an experimental store where they may buy products under controlled conditions. Through follow-up interviews, focus groups, and purchase patterns, the market shares for new products can be predicted.

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  • Laddering

    Used in focus groups to build on responses until met with a psychological need for the ego or status. A consumer's attitude toward a product will yield "why" questions until the motive for the behavior is identified.

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  • Laddering

    A technique for conducting depth interviews where questions progress from product characteristics to user characteristics.

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  • Latent Click Through

    An instance when a consumer comes across an online banner ad, then visits the advertised website later because they had seen it earlier. It is only a latent click through if the consumer does not click directly on the banner ad. Also referred to as a "view through".

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  • Latin Square Design

    A type of statistical experimental design where the aim is to remove the error associated with variations in two non-interacting external variables, in order to understand the effect of each variable in addition to the effect of manipulating an independent variable. Experimental units are allocated in such a way that variations in experimental treatments occur once in each row or column (in a table of treatments).

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  • Leading Question

    A question that suggests an answer by the way in which the question is worded.

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  • Leg

    Phases of the research project in which respondents will participate.

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  • Legacy

    This is a demand that new software and operating systems can read or convert old data and will work with the new technology. Legacy issues strain productivity and damage efficiency by preventing a company for upgrading to improved solutions.

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  • Lelly Triads

    Often used by advertising agencies, consumers are presented with three cards with the product (or service) displayed and are asked to choose the odd card and then explain why it was chosen. The words the consumer uses are carefully noted as the consumer describes the differences on the card. This is also referred to as repertory grids.

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  • Length of Interview

    The time it takes to ask the questions and record the answers in a survey. This time should include any time required to taste products or review concepts etc. Screening time should be shown separately so that accurate completion rates can be calculated.

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  • Level of Significance

    The maximum probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis (or committing a type I error), equal to one minus the confidence level. When using statistics, it is the probability that a Type I error will be made. A Type I error occurs when the relationship of two things is rejected when in all actuality it is true.

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  • Lifestyle

    A term that originally referred to the attitudes, interests, and opinions of research participants, but it can be used to refer to differences in behaviour that relate to social values.

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  • Lifestyle Research

    Research conducted in order to explain behavior by means of consumer opinions, activities, hobbies, and attitudes. This analysis can be used along with psychographic research (studying responses to statements about one's own activities, interests, and opinions).

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  • Lifestyle Selectivity

    Consumer behaviors that can be attributed to a certain population segment's lifestyle. This includes interests, ownership, and hobbies.

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  • Likert Scale

    A type of categorical, non-comparative scale that determines respondents’ levels of agreement to a series of statements relating to an attitude being measured.

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  • Likert Scale

    An attitude scale that measures the level to which the respondent "agrees" or "disagrees" with a given statement in regard to a particular product or service. The scale will give an odd number of choices with an equal amount of agreement/disagreement choices on either side of a neutral option.

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  • Line Chart

    A chart where a series of data points are connected by a continuous line.

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  • Linear Regression Analysis

    A type of regression analysis between variables that are believed to have a linear relationship.

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  • List Order Bias

    This is the idea of primacy and recency. A respondent is most likely to recall the beginning of the message or list, primacy, and the last portion of the message or list, recency. The respondent's recall is weaker in regards to the items located in the middle of the list.

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  • List Rotation

    The beginning of the survey is selected randomly in order to prevent List Order Bias.

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  • Listed Sample

    A list of people with a certain set of demographic information to fulfill a targeted market in marketing research.

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  • Listed Telephone Households

    Telephone numbers, which are available in public lists, like a directory.

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  • Literature Search

    A review of all available secondary data sources on a particular subject.

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  • Loaded Question

    A question that suggests an answer by the way in which the question is worded.

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  • Location Studies

    Research projects that aim to identify the best position (usually for a retail outlet).

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  • Logit Model

    Binary model of regression analysis that utilizes an S-shaped curve. For each question, responses can only be one of two options, like yes or no; or zero or one.

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  • Logo

    A unique symbol, trademark, or type style used to represent a company or brand name on packaging, in advertising, in promotional materials, or other communications.

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  • Long Census Form

    One of two censuses issued in the United States every ten years that contains 26 additional population questions and 20 additional housing questions than what the short form contains. Data for large geographic areas is accessible, but not smaller areas due to protecting respondent anonymity.

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  • Longitudinal Design

    A type of research design where a fixed sample of population units is measured repeatedly.

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  • Longitudinal Study

    A research study conducted over time by observing a certain sample set to understand developmental trends. Can use the same sample set over decades, or could utilize a new sample at set intervals.

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  • M-Commerce

    Media commerce that refers to any kind of commerce occurring over any kind of mobile device (i.e. an Internet enabled mobile phone).

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  • Machine-Readable Data

    Data that has been encoded into a form that is recognizable for a computer. Optical character recognition (OCR) is able to read magnetic encoding.

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  • macroenvironment

    The collection of uncontrollable forces and conditions facing a person or a company, including demographic, economic, natural, technological, political, and cultural forces

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  • macromarketing

    The study of marketing processes, activities, institutions, and results from a broad perspective such as a nation, in which cultural, political, and social, as well as economic interaction are investigated. It is marketing in a larger context than any one firm.

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  • Mail Panel

    A type of consumer panel where participants have agreed to complete a limited number of mail surveys each year. The household classification data of the participants is known in advance, which allows a client to select a sample of respondents with whom to conduct a survey. Mail panels can be local or national in scope.

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  • Mail Panels

    A set of the sample which has been screened and previously accepted to participate in studies with a particular company. The company then proceeds to periodically send surveys to such participants.

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  • Mail Questionnaires

    Surveys sent through the mail. Respondents complete the surveys and mail back to the research organization.

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  • Mail Survey

    A survey where respondents are asked to complete a questionnaire (unaided) and return it to the sender either by post or e-mail. The respondents may or may not be recruited in advance of the survey.

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  • Mailout Rate

    The amount of surveys sent to respondents. Monitor the server capacity when sending out survey invitations.

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  • Main Testing Effect

    When the pre-testing in an experiment has a systematic effect on the main experimental results, regardless of what happens between the measurements.

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  • Male Head-of-Household (MHH)

    The man most responsible for maintaining the household. May or may not be the primary wage earner.

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  • Mall Intercept Interview

    A type of central location interviewing where respondents are approached (or intercepted) in high traffic locations such as grocery stores or shopping malls. The main part of the interview can take place either on the mall floor or in another location (usually nearby).

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  • Mall-Intercept Interviewing

    Occurs when consumers are shopping in public areas and are approached about taking a survey at the shopping center. These can be conducted on paper or face-to-face.

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  • Management Report

    A summary report of the survey data covering the highlights or key findings.

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  • Mann-Whitney U Test

    A test that compares the location of two populations, based on samples from each population. The variables used are measured on an ordinal scale.

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  • Mapping

    Computer generated maps that include all types of demographic information relating to a particular geographic area. The software that generates these maps is also developed to identify the geographic sites that best target a particular market.

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  • MAPPing

    A technique used to chart a consumer's perceptions and preferences regarding a particular product with a visual aid, like a graph or map.

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  • Marginal

    For each question on a survey, the marginal is how many people responded to a particular question. It becomes the parameter for responses on each question. The marginal is generally computer-generated and is used to monitor panel response integrity.

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  • Market

    All individuals or organizations that are in a category of potential buyers for a given product or service.

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  • Market

    The geographical area or areas in which a research project takes place, e.g. part or all of a country, or part or all of a city.

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  • Market Research

    Which includes social and opinion research, is the systematic gathering and interpretation of information about individuals or organisations using the statistical and analytical methods and techniques of the applied social sciences to gain insight or support decision making. The identity of respondents will not be revealed to the user of the information without explicit consent and no sales approach will be made to them as a direct result of their having provided information. (As defined in the ICC/ESOMAR INTERNATIONAL CODE ON MARKET AND SOCIAL RESEARCH)

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  • Market Research

    Any organized effort to gather information about markets or customers. It is a very important component of business strategy. (According to McQuarrie, Edward (2005), The market research toolbox: a concise guide for beginners (2nd ed.), SAGE, ISBN 978-1-4129-1319-5.)

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  • Market Research Society (MRS)

    A professional society based in the UK, for those who are involved or concerned with marketing and opinion research.

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  • Market Research Society Australia (MRSA)

    Australia's market research organization.

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  • Market Segmentation

    The process of taking a market and dividing it by a measurable characteristic (usually demographics) to be able to identify a consumer that is within the target market.

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  • Market Share

    A percentage of the market that is purchasing a particular brand, product, or supplier.

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  • Market Share

    The percentage of sales of a specific product category that are accounted for by one brand. Brand shares can be expressed in terms of the sales value or the volume of units sold.

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  • Market Simulation

    The research technique that creates an actual market situation. The effects of a new product's advertising, price changes, and more can be measured with controlled variables.

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  • Market Test

    A type of controlled experiment conducted in a carefully selected geographical area to understand the impact of a marketing program on the sales or profits of a product or service.

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  • Marketing

    A set of activities that businesses and other organizations create transfers of value between themselves and their customers. Generally revolves around products and services for the customer.

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  • Marketing & Opinion Research

    The function that links the consumers, customers, and public to the marketer through information — information used to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems; generate, refine, and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing performance; and improve understanding of marketing as a process. Marketing research specifies the information required to address these issues, designs the method for collecting information, manages and implements the data collection process, analyzes the results, and communicates the findings and their implications. (According to American Marketing Association, approved by the AMA Board of Directors, October 2007.)

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  • Marketing Concept

    The idea that marketing should cater to the customer needs and wants as opposed to what the company wants.

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  • Marketing Decision Support System

    A type of marketing information system where decision makers can make particular requests for information that may not be part of the existing on-going reports.

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  • Marketing Information System

    A set of formal procedures for collecting and analysing data from all sources and disseminating information regularly to marketing decision makers.

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  • Marketing Information Systems (MIS)

    Computer systems that present data that is seemly insignificant until the system produces and distributes information that is coherent throughout an organization.

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  • Marketing Mix

    A mix of product, price, promotion, and place (distribution) that best meet the needs of targeted customers.

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  • Marketing Research

    As defined by the American Marketing Association: The systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis, and dissemination of information for the purpose of improving decision making related to the identification and solution of problems and opportunities in marketing.

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  • Marketing Research Association (MRA)

    A professional society based in the US, for those who are involved or concerned with marketing and opinion research. Its mission is to promote excellence in marketing and opinion research by providing members with a variety of opportunities for advancing and expanding their marketing research and related business skills and to act as an industry advocate with appropriate government entities, other associations, and the public.

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  • Marketing Strategy

    A company's projected marketing campaign that identifies resources available as well as past and future marketing capabilities.

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  • Markov Model

    Process using matrices to find the probability of users in one brand category switching to a different brand the next time they buy in that category. Represents significant results and can now be measured by retail scanners.

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  • Matching

    The organizing of experimental units into test and control groups so that they share some particular characteristics that are relevant to the research.

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  • Mathematical Analysis of Perception and Preference (MAPP)

    A technique used to chart a consumer's perceptions and preferences regarding a particular product with a visual aid, like a graph or map.

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  • Maturation

    The stage in a product's life where sales are steady and the product is well known.

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  • Maturation Error

    Maturation Error occurs in experiments when there is a gradual change in the dependent variable over time that is not caused by the independent variable, e.g. participants’ knowledge levels increasing over the period of an experiment.

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  • Mean

    A summary measure of central tendency that is equal to the sum of a set of values divided by the number of values in the data.

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  • Mean

    An average found by summing all observations then dividing the sum by the number of observations.

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  • Mean Square Error

    Used in statistics when measuring total errors expected to be found in a sample estimate. It is calculated by taking the square root of the sum of the standard error squared and the bias squared.

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  • Measure of Location

    The specific location of a single quantity in a frequency distribution. For example, the mean is found in the middle of the frequency distribution.

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  • Measurement

    Finding a way to consistently represent quantities or attribute qualities.

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  • Measurement Error

    A difference between an expected measurement and the actual information that was measured.

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  • Measurement Scale

    A device that assigns numbers to objects, events, or people according to a set of rules.

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  • Measurement Timing Error

    Measurement timing error occurs in experiments when there are changes in the dependent variable that are caused by taking measurements at different times.

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  • Measures of Central Tendency

    Measures that describe the center of a distribution. Examples of measures of central tendency are: mean, median, and mode.

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  • Measures of Location

    Statistics that describe the location within a data set. Examples of measures of location are the 25th percentile or the largest value. The mean, median, and mode are also examples of measures of location (in addition to being measures of central tendency).

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  • Measures of Shape

    Skewness and kurtosis that describe the outline of a distribution.

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  • Measures of Variability

    Measures of variability (or dispersion) are those that indicate the spread of a distribution. Examples of measures of variability are: range, interquartile range, variance, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation.

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  • Mechanical Observation

    When some form of mechanical device records the behavior of interest, e.g. a people-meter recording who watches what TV programs.

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  • Media

    This term refers to methods of message communication. Media is the plural of medium. Magazines, newspapers, radio, television, and billboards are referred to as advertising media.

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  • Media Marketing Areas

    Defines the television audiences thanks to sampling. Can be called ADI (Areas of Dominant Influence) or DMA (Designated Market Areas).

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  • Media Research

    Research that is centered on issues of media selection and efficiency.

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  • Media Test

    Research method that examines the impact of advertising through various media.

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  • Median

    A measure of central tendency that identifies the middle-point value (or 50th percentile) in a set of values when they are arranged in order of magnitude.

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  • Median

    A specific observation found directly in the middle of a numerically sorted list.

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  • Methodological Log

    A recorded account of the exact process and times used to conduct a humanistic inquiry. Biases or distortions need to be especially noted.

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  • Methodology

    A description of the way in which the data is collected for part or all of a research project.

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  • Methodology

    The procedure used as a proven method that, when repeated, should yield the same result. Steps need to be recorded properly so that the procedure can be redone exactly.

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  • Metric Data

    Data that can be analyzed statistically, such as that from an interval or ratio scale.

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  • Metric Scale

    Metrics are determined by measurable variables that define progress. There are several categories of metrics, from weight measurements to sales measurements in a company. The intervals between metrics on a particular scale are significant ratios to be used when quantifying metrics.

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  • Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)

    A metropolitan area that is surrounded by several non-metropolitan counties which are geographically removed from other metropolitan areas. MSAs are organized by population size and are given government FIP codes.

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  • Microdata

    Files that show the full range of responses individuals complete in a certain category (i.e. occupation, place of work, etc.) on the United States Census. This information is connected to an anonymous respondent and is available for the public at the Public-Use Microdata Samples.

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  • Microsite

    An individual site or cluster of pages that are connected to its parent site, that usually are on the same server, and are accessed by clicking on an initial ad.

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  • Midway Term

    The respondent decides not to complete the interview and will cooperate no further.

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  • Migration

    Process of relocating one's residence into a new political area.

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  • Mini Group Discussion

    A focus group with fewer participants (usually 4-6) than the normal 8-12.

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  • Minigroup

    A focus group conducted with four to six participants. Seven or more members constitute a full focus group, while less than four is considered a triad or dyad.

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  • Mix Mode Data Collection

    Employing various research techniques for one research project. This can be a time consuming and costly technique. Advances in Net-centric solutions are making this proven research method more feasible now.

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  • Mixed Groups

    A focus group comprised of male and female members.

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  • Mobility

    The opportunity that one has to change residence by means of geographic movement.

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  • Mode

    In statistics, the data that occurs the most frequently. On a frequency curve, the mode would appear at the peak.

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  • Mode

    A measure of central tendency that identifies the most frequently occurring value in a set of values.

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  • Modeling

    The formulation of mathematically-expressed variables to simulate a business decision environment. For example, a model could be formulated using demographics and a company's financial data to select new markets that have the same combination of factors that are present in currently successful markets.

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  • Moderated E-mail Group (MEG)

    Where a group of pre-recruited research participants are all in email contact with a facilitator and the facilitator emails questions to them on a particular subject. At periodic intervals, the facilitator produces a summary of views and sends it to all the participants. It is similar to an online focus group in that the participants are unable to see each other therefore no visual signals can be communicated, although anonymity can be assured.

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  • Moderated Email Group (MEG)

    A MEG is an asynchronous qualitative technique. The email moderator sends a series of emails to the group members, who in turn reply to the moderator. Members of the group do not communicate directly with each other.

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  • Moderator

    Someone who is the leader of (but does not influence the outcome of) a focus group discussion, in-depth interview, or other meeting. Often works from pre-determined outline of subjects to be covered.

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  • Moderator Guide

    Used in focus groups as the outline for the moderator so that the group discussion stays on track. The moderator develops the guide before the focus groups begins so that all of the desired topics will be discussed in a particular order and given the necessary emphasis.

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  • Monadic

    Consumer test where only a single product is evaluated.

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  • Monadic Evaluation

    A study or part of a study in which the respondent evaluates only one stimulus on its own merits, rather than comparing it to other test stimuli. The stimulus can be a product, concept, advertisement, etc.

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  • Monitor

    A quality control measure which may involve observing, auditing, and checking the interviewing for the purposes of ensuring required procedures are followed and to give feedback and instruction to the interviewers. Monitoring is one means of validating or giving assurance that data is collected from qualified respondents who are interviewed under prescribed conditions. Monitoring can be done in person for face-to-face interviews or by telephone for telephone interviews.

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  • Mono-polar Scale

    A type of categorical, non-comparative scale that is similar to a semantic differential scale except that instead of having two opposing adjectives, there is only one adjective in between a sequence of positive and negative categories. Respondents indicate how relevant each single characteristic is to an object in question.

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  • Mood Board

    A visual tool that represents the atmosphere or feel of an intended advertisement or to research a consumer's experience of a brand or product.

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  • Mortality

    Occurs during an experiment, when a subject that was being tested is no longer involved in the study. This is unfortunate since each participant was chosen to find systematic differences between subjects.

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  • Mortality Error

    Mortality error occurs in experiments when changes in the dependent variable are caused by experimental units no longer being part of the experiment.

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  • Motivational Research

    Qualitative research that examines the relationship between the "personality" of the consumer and the "personality" of the product. It can involve research techniques that have been borrowed from psychological analysis. It is used to uncover conscious and/or subconscious attitudes that participants either may be unaware of and/or they would not normally reveal when questioned directly.

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  • Moving Average

    The mean of a series of measurements that have been taken over a period of time. Moving averages can be used to eliminate a seasonal bias in some data.

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  • MRCBOK

    Marketing Research Core Body of Knowledge

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  • Multi-Client Research

    Where the findings and costs of a research project are shared (partially or fully) among a number of clients.

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  • Multi-Coded Questions

    Respondents are allowed to give a number of responses to one question.

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  • Multi-Dimensional Scaling

    A perceptual mapping technique that represents perceptions and preferences of respondents as a spatial map. The axes of each map are the underlying dimensions that respondents use to form their preferences and perceptions.

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  • Multi-Item Scale

    A measurement scale that gathers opinions about an object on a number of dimensions and the data can be collated to produce a combined rating. The dimensions used can come from secondary sources and/or qualitative research. The intended use of the resulting data will also determine which dimensions are included in the scale.

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  • Multi-Stage Sample

    A sample that is selected in stages, where the sampling units at each stage are sub-samples from the previous stage.

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  • Multi-Variate Techniques

    Forms of statistical analysis that are used where there are two or more dependent variables to be analyzed simultaneously.

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  • Multicollinearity

    A state of high intercorrelations among independent variables. Addressed when finding a linear relationship with multiple independent variables. This problem often occurs because of the difficulty in identifying and separating the independent variable that is influencing the dependent variable.

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  • Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)

    Procedure to detect underlying dimensions that allow researchers to explain observed similarities or dissimilarities between investigated objects.

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  • Multiple Answers

    When more than one answer is acceptable for the same question.

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  • Multiple Choice Questions

    Questions that ask respondents to select one or more alternatives from a set.  Questions that offer more than two possible answer choices and require a respondent to choose from the listed options.

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  • Multiple Cross-Sectional Design

    A type of research design where two or more samples are drawn from a population of interest, each sample being only drawn once.

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  • Multiple Mentions

    More than one response is recorded per question for each respondent.

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  • Multiple Regression Analysis

    Statistical procedure identifying the relationship between two or more independent variables in an effort to identify patterns within the relationship.

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  • Multiple Regression Analysis

    A technique for developing mathematical relationships between two or more independent variables and an interval-scaled dependent variable.

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  • Multiple Response Question

    A question where respondents can provide more than one answer, e.g. by checking more than one item on a list.

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  • Multiple Time Series Design

    A type of quasi-experimental design where a series of periodic measurements is taken from two groups of test units (an experimental group and a control). The experimental group is exposed to a treatment and then another series of periodic measurements is taken from both groups.

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  • Multiple Time-Series Design

    A study that is conducted using a control group for a particular set of time (e.g. month), but is not continuously conducted, rather revisited within the span of the study's time set.

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  • Multivariate Analysis

    A statistical method that analyzes more than one measurement at a single time.

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  • Mutually Exclusive

    A set of events is considered mutually exclusive if only one event from given set can occur at any given time. This implies that if events (E1, E2, E3, E4) are mutually exclusive and event E2 occurs then no events of (E1, E3, E4) did occur at that time.

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  • Mutually Exclusive Categories

    Categories are mutually exclusive when objects can be placed into one category and no other.

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  • Mystery Shoppers

    People conducting market research that are disguised as consumers while they shop at competitor's stores and their own stores to compare prices, displays, and customer service. Mystery shopping requires skilled participants.

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  • Mystery Shopping

    A type of observation study where someone is sent into a business location to act in the role of a customer to evaluate the performance of a business or an employee.

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  • N.H. or N.A.H. (Not At Home/No One Home)

    The accepted abbreviation to indicate the respondent is not at home, there is no answer to the doorbell, or the telephone.

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  • NA (No Answer)

    The accepted abbreviation to indicate no response to a question because the respondent refused to reply, the question did not apply, or it was skipped for some reason.

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  • National Proportions

    The characteristics of the country where a research project is being conducted.

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  • Natural Observation

    The observation of behaviour in a natural setting.

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  • Natural Observation

    The research method of observing the respondent in the least obtrusive manner. This would include watching the respondent without questioning the respondent.

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  • Nested Sample

    A sample that is selected in stages, where the sampling units at each stage are sub-samples from the previous stage.

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  • Net Effects

    Annual conferences held by ESOMAR that explore interfaces within market research and the Internet.

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  • Neural Network

    A process of quantifying text information from focus groups by coding appropriately into a computer and then analyzing results. When using a computer, results can identify patterns, draw abstractions, and find relationships within the input data.

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  • Neuromarketing

    A technique that measures how consumers will react to brands and advertising. The brain is mapped, using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to record conscious and subconscious responses to advertising, products, or brands.

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  • Neutral Value

    Usually the mean of all responses to a question and it can be used as a substitute for a missing response.

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  • Niche Marketing

    Marketing a product to a small and well-defined segment.

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  • Nixie Rate

    The Nixie Rate measures the amount of survey invitations that are returned to the sender because the respondent's address is incorrect.

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  • No-Show

    A designated member of a focus group who agrees to participate, even the same day, and then never arrives for the group. Facilities often over-recruit to adjust for no-shows.

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  • Noise

    Noise can be used to refer to a random variation in some data due to uncontrolled sources.

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  • Nominal Group Technique

    A type of face-to-face group discussion that is designed to minimise the group effect (where participants moderate their opinions and go along with a majority view). Participants are asked to consider a subject and then discuss it with one other member (or a small number of members) of the group before presenting it to the whole group.

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  • Nominal Grouping Session

    Qualitative research method in which consumers, brought together in small groups, independently generate ideas about a subject and hence discuss the ideas.

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  • Nominal Scale

    A measurement scale identifying variable categories. A scale where the numbers act only as data labels (e.g. 0=male, 1=female or a social security number). The only analysis that can be performed is to observe how frequently each of the scale members occurs in the survey.

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  • Non-Balanced Scales

    Scales that are unevenly weighted and favor a particular direction.

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  • Non-Comparative

    An evaluation of an object, concept, or person without referring or comparing it to another item.

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  • Non-Comparative Scale

    A scale where each object is measured independently of the other objects in the same test and absolute results are obtained.

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  • Non-Family Household

    Defined by the census bureau as a person living in a household with non-relatives or by themselves.

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  • Non-Metric Correlation

    A correlation measure for two non-metric variables that relies on rankings to compute the correlation.

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  • Non-Metric Data

    Data that cannot be analyzed statistically, such as that from a nominal or ordinal scale.

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  • Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling

    A perceptual mapping technique that is based on an analysis of non-metric data such as rank ordering.

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  • Non-Parametric Test

    A test that involves non-metric data (i.e. data that comes from nominal or ordinal scales).

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  • Non-Probability Sample

    A sample in which the selection of units is based on factors other than random chance, e.g. convenience, prior experience, or the judgement of the researcher. Examples of non-probability samples are: convenience, judgmental, quota, and snowball.

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  • Non-Probability Sample

    A sample of the population chosen by the investigator rather than by using probability to choose the participants. By doing this, a true representative cross section of the population is foregone.

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  • Non-Random

    Occurs when probability is not a good predictor of future results because some part of the experiment is weighted.

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  • Non-Random Sample

    A sample in which the selection of units is based on factors other than random chance, e.g. convenience, prior experience, or the judgement of the researcher. Examples of non-probability samples are: convenience, judgmental, quota, and snowball.

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  • Non-Response

    Indicates no response to a question because the respondent refused to reply, the question did not apply, or it was skipped for some reason.

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  • Non-Response Bias

    Resulting error identifying a systematic difference in those who do and do not respond to the measurement instrument.

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  • Non-Response Error

    A type of non-sampling error caused by some sub-groups of the sample responding less than the rest of the sample.

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  • Non-Sampling Error

    Any error or inaccuracies caused by factors other than sampling error. Examples of non-sampling errors are: selection bias, population mis-specification error, sampling frame error, processing error, respondent error, non-response error, instrument error, interviewer error, and surrogate error.

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  • Norm

    The standardised or hypothesised value against which a sample statistic is compared.

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  • Normal Distribution

    A symmetrical bell-shaped statistical distribution where the mean, the median, and the mode all have the same value. A bell-shaped distribution that is bisymmetric to the mean.

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  • Normative Data

    Measures that describe the center of a distribution. Examples of measures of central tendency are: mean, median, and mode.

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  • Not-At-Home

    The attempt to conduct an interview, but the respondent was not available at the location.

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  • Nth Selection

    Process of choosing every "nth" name as an interval of "N" on a list, and using those subjects throughout the study. Also called an interval.

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  • Null Hypothesis

    Initial assumption made with a statement that is being tested with a significance test.

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  • Null Hypothesis

    A statement to be tested that is usually expressed in a negative (or null) way and suggests that no difference or effect is expected. If the statement is disproved, then the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted.

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  • Numeric Database

    A database comprised of raw survey data over a wide range of topics that has not yet been analyzed.

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  • Numerical Scale

    A type of scale where the intervals are represented by numbers (as opposed to pictures or words).

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  • Objectives

    Objectives are the goals or purpose of the research study. The reason why the study is being conducted.

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  • Observation

    The accepted value given for a single instance of a sample study.

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  • Observation Bias

    Changes in the behavior or events under study that are caused by the observation process itself. Personal observation is usually more likely to have observation bias than mechanical observation.

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  • Observation Check

    The ability to study a particular product and have information available for the product such as how many stores carry it, the number of facings, special displays, and the prices associated with the particular product.

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  • Observation Research

    An experiment conducted without any direct interaction between the investigators and the respondents. Also known as a quasi-experiment.

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  • Observation Room

    The location that is separated from the room that contains the subjects usually by a one-way mirror that allows investigators to observe the reactions and hear what is going on during a focus group.

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  • Observation Study

    A research study where data is collected by watching consumer behavior or events taking place.

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  • Observational Research

    A means of collecting data through watching the situation of interest and recording behaviors, pertinent facts, or actions.

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  • Observed Value

    A cross-tabulation is the number of objects identified by research (which may be different to the expected value).

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  • Occasion Image

    The impression created, either explicitly or implicitly, of the types of occasion for which a brand is perceived to be most appropriate.

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  • Occupancy Status

    Determined as whether or not a housing unit is occupied or vacant (available).

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  • Omnibus Panel

    A study conducted in intervals that allow several companies to purchase a few questions on a single survey that will be administered to a large audience. The survey results for each question will be delivered to the company that posted that particular question as well as surveyed demographic information.

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  • Omnibus Study

    A periodic study that asks questions on a number of unrelated subjects. The results may be completely or partially syndicated among clients.

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  • Omnibus Survey

    A survey which examines a number of unrelated topics or issues. This may be a "shared expense" study in which a number of different clients participate.

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  • On-Air Test

    A test is where research participants are exposed to some advertising in a natural setting, such as their own homes.

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  • On-Air Testing

    The impact of television and radio measured after the program has gone on the air.

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  • One Group Pre-Test - Post-Test

    A type of pre-experimental design where a single group of test units is measured, exposed to an experimental treatment, and then measured again.

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  • One-Group Pre-Test Post-Test Design

    A design developed before the experiment with measurements before and after the test to note the difference since no control group is used.

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  • One-on-One

    A qualitative interview involving only a moderator and a single respondent.

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  • One-on-One Interview (1-on-1)

    An interview conducted by an interviewer with one respondent at a time.

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  • One-on-Ones

    A type of qualitative research involving an unstructured personal interview with a single respondent, conducted by a highly skilled interviewer. The purpose of in-depth interviews is to understand the underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings of respondents on a particular subject.

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  • One-Shot Case Study

    A type of pre-experimental design where a single group of test units is exposed to an experimental treatment and a single measurement is taken afterwards. It only measures the post-test results and does not use a control group.

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  • One-Sided Question

    A form of leading question that presents only one aspect of an issue being considered by respondents.

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  • One-Stage Sampling

    A sampling procedure that involves collecting data from all available units in selected sub-groups of a population of interest.

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  • One-Tailed Test

    A test where the null hypothesis is expressed directionally, e.g. the proportion having a characteristic is more than x%. One-tailed tests are more popular than two-tailed tests because the directional result makes the findings more actionable.

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  • One-Way Frequency Table

    A way of charting how often particular responses are used for each question on a survey.

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  • One-Way Mirror

    A sheet of glass which, when viewed from one side, appears to be a normal mirror and when viewed from the other side, is transparent. It is used in marketing research to observe respondents without their being constantly reminded that they are being watched, although they have to be advised by the researcher that they are being observed. A one-way mirror is often used in focus group discussions.

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  • Online Discussion Group

    A discussion group where a number of pre-recruited research participants are in simultaneous electronic contact (via a PC) and they are discussing a particular subject. The discussion is guided by a moderator and the participants are unable to see each other, therefore no visual signals can be communicated although anonymity can be assured.

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  • Online Profiling

    Behavioral Targeting (also known as preference marketing, behavioral advertising, behavioral marketing, or online profiling) is defined by the FTC as “the tracking of a consumer’s online activities over time – including the searches the consumer has conducted, the Web pages visited, and the content viewed – in order to deliver advertising targeted to the individual consumer’s interests".

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  • Open Ended Question

    A survey question that allows the respondent an opportunity to write in the response that best answers the question for them. There are no options to chose from so the respondent must use their own wording. 

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  • Open Observation

    An instance where people know they are being studied by observers.

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  • Open Survey

    An organization promoting open standards in market research.

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  • Open-Ended Questions

    Questions that do not have a set of anticipated responses listed on the questionnaires. The interviewer records the respondent's verbatim response. When the survey is interviewer-administered, the respondent is encouraged to respond completely and freely with the use of probing and clarifying techniques. These questions may also be self-administered.

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  • Opening Questions

    The questions at the beginning of a questionnaire and they should be interesting, simple, and non-threatening to gain the confidence and co-operation of respondents.

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  • Operational Definition

    Identifies which characteristics will be used to observe or measure a particular concept and the value that will be attributed to the observation.

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  • Opinion

    The verbal expression of an attitude and is not directly verifiable by research data.

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  • Opinion Poll

    A study that collects views of the public on matters of broad interest. Check our FAQ on opinion polling.

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  • Opportunities to See (OTS)

    The average number of times an advert has been exposed to a specified television audience or universe.

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  • Opt-In

    A way of obtaining permission from participants so that they may be contacted in the future. Double-opt in refers to participants that sign up for a service online and are then sent an email in which they confirm to the service by responding to the email’s prompts. They are essentially agreeing twice to be involved with a particular company.

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  • Opt-Out

    A system set up so that people will continue to be contacted by the company that they signed up with until the participant chooses to terminate the relationship. At that time, the respondent is able to request no further contact.

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  • Optical Character Reader (OCR)

    A computer program that is able to scan printed characters and translate those codes into electronic data.

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  • Optical Scanner

    A device that is able to read and electronically store data from questionnaires or barcodes.

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  • Optimal Allocation

    Sampling that attempts to represent the true population by means of proportions of individuals with given characteristics. Disproportional refers to a non-representative sample and optimal refers to a well represented sample.

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  • Optimum Allocation

    The allocation of sample units to strata so as to maximise the statistical efficiency of the survey.

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  • Order Bias

    When respondents tend to favor objects because of their position in a list or sequence. The objects at the beginning and at the end of a list can be remembered more than those occurring in the middle. Usual practice is to rotate a list to eliminate this type of bias.

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  • Order Bias

    This occurs when the sequence of interview questions or answers to the questionnaire influence how the respondents answer during the study.

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  • Ordinal Scale

    A scale that allows categories to be ranked in order from smallest to largest - even though the space between two categories is insignificant. Example responses might be excellent, good, fair, and poor.

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  • Ordinal Scale

    A scale where the numbers assigned represent relative amounts of the characteristic being measured, e.g. first or second in a ranking. The distances between intervals in an ordinal scale are usually not equal - i.e. the difference between the values of first and second is not the same as the difference between third and fourth in a ranking.

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  • Osgood Scale

    A type of categorical, non-comparative scale with two opposing adjectives separated by a sequence of unlabelled categories, e.g. Good 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Poor.

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  • Out

    The respondent decides not to complete the interview and will cooperate no further. Also referred to as outed.

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  • Outlier

    This data is uncharacteristic of the normal distribution. It is common for this data to be removed from the results in order to prevent skewing of the means or averages. For example, 98% of the respondents purchase a particular product 4 times a week, but 2% of the respondents purchase that product 40 times a week. Researchers will remove the data of the 2% that purchased the product 40 times.

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  • Outliers

    Extremely small or extremely large values in a set, compared with the mean of all values in the set.

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  • Outmigration

    Process of relocating from a particular location in a given country to a different area within that same country.

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  • Overclaiming

    A phenomenon where research participants make claims that are not factually correct. There are many reasons for this behaviour including best light phenomenon and social group norms.

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  • Overrecruit

    The act of inviting more people to participate in a focus group than the study actually allows compensating for people who are planning on attending but do not.

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  • Package Test

    A test that measures consumer reactions to a package or label.

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  • Packaging Tests

    A form of research that measures reactions to differing packing approaches.

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  • Paired Comparison

    An evaluation of two products that are given values based on set criteria as means of comparing the two items.

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  • Paired Comparison Evaluation

    A study or part of a study in which the respondent compares two or more test stimuli (i.e., products, concepts, labels, etc.) according to some criterion, such as preference.

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  • Paired Comparison Scale

    A type of comparative scale where respondents are presented with two alternatives and they are asked to choose which they prefer (according to a criterion).

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  • Paired Depth

    A type of depth interview where there are two respondents (instead of the usual one). Friendship pair interviewing is often used for research with children and young people (where they know each other) in order to avoid respondents being intimidated and biasing their responses accordingly.

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  • Paired Depths

    Depth interviews that are conducted with two respondents simultaneously. This technique is often employed with a child that is interviewed with a friend to lessen the apprehension of the interview situation.

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  • Pairwise Deletion

    A treatment of survey data where only the completed questions are analyzed, i.e. partially complete responses are not excluded from the analysis.

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  • Pan-cultural Analysis

    The collection of data from different countries (or cultural units) and analysis of the aggregated data.

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  • Panel

    A group of selected research participants who have agreed to provide pre-designated information at regular specified intervals over an extended period of time. The information may be on purchasing, media consumption, or life-style activities.

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  • Panel

    A group of respondents that participate in multiple surveys over an extensive period of time. Respondents willing participate with the market research project in return for some compensation. Specialty panels can be created for specific samples (e.g. doctors, IT professionals, youth), or for specialist research and product testing. Traditionally, panels are used for a wider range of projects, including general and consumer research. There are massive panels and databases of people available for research.

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  • Panel Conditioning

    A form of systematic error that occurs when panel participants change their behaviour (that is being observed) as a result of being part of the panel.

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  • Panel Research

    A general term used to describe a pre-selected group of homogeneous people used more than once over a period of time to collect information.

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  • Pantry Check

    A survey where an interviewer enters a participant’s home to take an inventory of specific products present at that time.

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  • Pantry Check

    This is an audit conducted by the respondent. The respondent is requested to create an inventory of the products and brands found in their kitchen pantry or refrigerator. This prevents research corruption from a respondent’s poor recollection.

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  • Paper and Pencil Interviewing (PAPI)

    A traditional method used for surveying that involves respondents filling out a physical paper questionnaire that had been administered by an interviewer.

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  • Paradata

    Information collected about the research process. Often includes time and date of interviews as well as duration, number of questions answered, number of errors, length of text used in open-ended questions, etcetera. Used to make the research process more efficient.

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  • Parameter

    Determines the numerical summary associated with a population distribution.

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  • Parameter

    A summary measure used to describe a group of people or objects that is based on data from all units in the group.

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  • Parametric Test

    A test that involves metric data (i.e. data from interval or ratio scales that can be analyzed statistically).

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  • Parent (underlying) Distribution

    Measurements of the original population distribution.

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  • Part Worths

    An amount determined by respondents regarding value or utility that is associated with product/service attributes at different levels.

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  • Partial Correlation Coefficient

    A statistic that is calculated to measure the association between two variables after controlling (or adjusting) for the effects of one or more additional variables.

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  • Participant

    A general term for a person who has agreed to be involved in a survey, focus group, or study and not just someone who is interviewed, e.g. in an observation study or a group discussion.

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  • Passive Data Collection

    Occurs without any overt consumer interaction and generally includes capturing user preferences and usage behavior, including location data, from personal mobile devices. A well-known example is the use of cookies on a user’s computer to capture Internet browsing history.

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  • Past Participation

    Some researchers may exclude respondents that have participated in research studies of the same topic or that have participated in research studies during a particular time frame. This process can remove potential bias.

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  • Pearson Coefficient

    A statistic that is calculated to determine whether a linear relationship exists between two metric variables and it takes values between -1 and +1 (depending on the degree of the relationship). A negative value indicates that the variables move in opposite directions and a positive value indicates that they move in the same direction. A value of 0 indicates that there is no linear relationship (although there may be a non-linear relationship).

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  • Pearson's Correlation Coefficient

    Most commonly used method to determine the strength associated with a set of variables.

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  • Penetration

    The proportion (usually expressed as a percentage) of a population of interest that has accepted a product or an idea in some way.

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  • Penetration Analysis

    An analysis performed to determine the market share held by a particular company or product in a market segment determined by demographics or various classification universes.

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  • People Meter

    A way of measuring demographic information related to national television audiences overnight through a microwave computerized rating system.

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  • People Meter

    An electronic device attached to a TV set that monitors which programs are watched by whom.

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  • People Reader

    The ability to document a participant’s reading material as well as their eye reaction at the same time by using a machine.

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  • Per Capita Income

    Value of the average income for an entire population. This is computed by dividing a country’s total income by its total population.

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  • Percentile

    A percentage scale from 0 to 100 that is associated with an item to show which percentage of the distribution is above and below the item.

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  • Perceptual MAPPing

    A technique used to chart a consumer’s perceptions and preferences regarding a particular product with a visual aid, like a graph or map.

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  • Perceptual Mapping

    An analysis technique that is designed to demonstrate how consumers view a concept or brand relative to the alternatives. Perceptual maps can be constructed from different types of analysis, e.g. factor analysis, correspondence analysis, and multi-dimensional scaling.

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  • Periodicity

    A cyclical variation in a characteristic being measured. Periodicity can lead to a bias in systematic sampling when the period of the cycle coincides with the sampling interval being used.

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  • Permission Based Research

    In marketing research, this is the process of only contacting people who have previously agreed to be contacted. This group could include people who have not disagreed to be contacted.

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  • Personal Income

    An individual’s income that includes both dollar amounts and some non-cash related benefits.

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  • Personal Interview

    Respondents are questioned face-to-face by the interviewer. The interviewer may cover any topic. The personal interview can be conducted in the respondent's home, place of business, or at a central location facility. These interviews can be long or short, depending on the topic to be discussed. Exhibits are often used in this approach to aid the respondent in answering questions.

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  • Personal Observation

    When human beings record the behaviour of interest or events taking place.

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  • Personalisation Technique

    A projective technique where participants are asked to ascribe “personality-type” traits or characteristics to an object or idea.

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  • Personally Identifiable Information

    Any information about an individual maintained by an agency, including (1) any information that can be used to distinguish or trace an individual‘s identity, such as name, social security number, date and place of birth, mother‘s maiden name, or biometric records; and (2) any other information that is linked or linkable to an individual, such as medical, educational, financial, and employment information.

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  • Persuasion

    A copy testing measure intended to indicate the motivating ability of an ad, by subtracting the proportion of respondents choosing the test brand prior to ad exposure (or in an unexposed control group) from the proportion choosing it after exposure. It is the net shift in brand choice from unexposed to exposed.

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  • PGS

    Primary grocery shopper.

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  • Phone-Mail-Phone

    The respondent is contacted by phone initially and then sent a lengthy questionnaire through the mail. When the respondent completes the questionnaire, they are contacted by phone and the responses are collected.

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  • Photo Sort

    A study used where respondents are given pictures of several types of people and are then asked to associate people with the products or services that they might use.

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  • Physical Control

    Maintaining the consistency of extraneous variables throughout a study so as to prevent these variables from affecting the outcome.

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  • Pictograph

    A type of graph that uses pictures or symbols to display the data.

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  • Pictorial Scale

    A type of scale where the intervals are represented by a sequence of pictures or diagrams, e.g. smiling faces (as opposed to numbers or words).

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  • Piggyback Survey

    Clients share costs conducting joint research studies.

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  • Pilot

    Preliminary research is conducted before the actual study to assess project logistics (i.e. the sample, methodology). The objective is to refine the actual research for improved accuracy and efficiency.

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  • Pilot Test

    Can be used to refer to two different activities. A pre-test is where a questionnaire is tested on a (statistically) small sample of respondents before a full-scale study, in order to identify any problems such as unclear wording or the questionnaire taking too long to administer. A pre-test can also be used to refer to an initial measurement (such as brand or advertising awareness) before an experimental treatment is administered and subsequent measurements are taken.

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  • Pilot Testing

    When the questionnaire is tried on a (statistically) small group of respondents to identify any unforeseen problems such as the wording or flow of the questions.

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  • Placement Interview

    A study where a participant is given a product to use and test in a PMSA (primary metropolitan statistical area).

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  • Placement Test

    A home use test involves participants evaluating products in their own homes, or more generally, in a natural usage environment. The purpose of the test is to make an evaluation of a product after more experience with it than just some initial use.

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  • Plausibility Sample

    A type of non-probability sample where the sample is chosen because it appears plausible that sample units are representative of the population of interest, although there is no evidence to support this assumption.

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  • Plus One Dialing

    This process adds one to a randomly selected phone number from a directory. This includes unlisted numbers in the sample.

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  • Point Estimator

    Computed numerical value that serves as an estimate of the true parameter before data is collected.

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  • Point-of-Purchase (P.O.P.)

    The physical location where product is actually purchased. This term may be used to refer to materials used at the point of purchase to promote or call attention to a product or sale (P.O.P. Materials). It may also refer to conducting research at the point of purchase to obtain the purchasers top of mind reaction to the product just purchased.

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  • Point-of-Sale (P.O.S.)

    The physical location where product is actually purchased. This term may be used to refer to materials used at the point of purchase to promote or call attention to a product or sale (P.O.P. Materials). It may also refer to conducting research at the point of purchase to obtain the purchasers top of mind reaction to the product just purchased.

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  • Political Studies

    Used by government agencies, officials, candidates, and political parties to determine the opinion of the electorates.

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  • Poll

    A poll is a survey gathering opinions from the respondents. Polls are often used during political elections to gauge voter sentiment about one candidate over the other.

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  • Pop-Up

    When using the Internet, a pop-up is a new window that opens to gain attention by blocking the previously displayed window. Often times pop-ups display ads or invitations to participate in market research surveys.

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  • Pop-Up Survey

    A questionnaire that appears on the screen of a website visitor. The term can also be used to refer to an invitation to participate in a survey. Pop-up surveys are usually triggered by a mechanism of some form, e.g. after a pre-defined period of time, or after so many visitors to a web page.

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  • Population

    The entire set of subjects that an experiment is attempting to identify. Usually samples of the population are used to represent a population because it would be nearly impossible to collect information from each unit or subject in a population.

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  • Population Centroid

    The peak of a population distribution that contains equal amounts distributed both above and below it.

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  • Population Distribution

    A distribution displaying population by frequency elements.

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  • Population Mis-Specification Error

    A type of non-sampling error caused by incorrectly defining the population of interest for a survey and either excluding or including certain types of respondents, e.g. limiting a survey to previous consumers of a product (and not asking the views of those who have not tried it).

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  • Population of Interest

    The group about whom the researcher wants to know more and from whom a sample will be drawn.

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  • Population Pyramid

    A pyramid-shaped chart showing the ages and sex that make up a population. This chart is generally represented with two bar graphs (males on the left and females on the right) divided into age groups on the y-axis and frequency on the x-axis.

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  • Population Specification Error

    An error that is associated with a lack of specification for the population of a particular study of which a sample is to be taken from.

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  • Population Standard Deviation

    Standard deviation for a variable in relevance to its population distribution.

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  • Portal

    A web interface for users to login and access information pertaining to their accounts. Services offered in portals often include news, links, email, and entertainment possibilities.

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  • Position Bias

    This is the idea of primacy and recency. A respondent is most likely to recall the beginning of the message or list, primacy, and the last portion of the message or list, recency. The respondent's recall is weaker in regards to the items located in the middle of the list.

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  • Positioning

    The way that a product is introduced to its market audience. This includes pricing, packaging, prestige, store placement, and how consumers view it as opposed to the product’s competitors.

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  • Post Hoc Segmentation

    Using empirical data to be able to identify segments within markets.

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  • Post-Test

    An evaluation of advertising after it has been run in the media.

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  • Post-Test Only Control Group Design

    A type of true experimental design where test units are randomly allocated to an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group is exposed to a treatment and both groups are measured afterwards.

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  • Postal Survey

    A survey conducted via mail. Respondents may, or may not, be recruited ahead of time to participate.

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  • Poverty

    An income level defined by the Census Bureau that determines a family’s poverty status. This level is adjusted yearly as changes occur in the national economy’s Consumer Price Index and costs of living.

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  • Power

    The probability that a hypothesis testing procedure will lead to a rejection of a null hypothesis that is false. The power is one minus the probability of committing a Type II error, i.e. 1-b.

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  • Pre-Coded Questions

    A question that offers the respondent answers from which they must choose from.

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  • Pre-Codes

    Numbers printed on a questionnaire for data entry and tabulation purposes. For closed-ended questions, the numbers can be circled as the answer.

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  • Pre-Coding

    The assignment of codes (coding) before the fieldwork of a survey is carried out. This occurs before the interviewing process. Computer codes are created and added to the questionnaire in order to accelerate the data processing of the respondent’s answers.

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  • Pre-Experimental Design

    An experimental design where randomisation procedures are not used to control for external variables. 

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  • Pre-Experimental Design

    A research design that is set and does not have control over extraneous factors.

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  • Pre-Measurement Error

    When the pre-testing in an experiment has a systematic effect on the main experimental results, regardless of what happens between the measurements.

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  • Pre-Recruit

    Consumers or business professionals are contacted either by telephone, mail, or in person and invited to participate in a study scheduled for a future date and time, if qualified. People who agree and are eligible are often compensated for their participation in the interview.

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  • Pre-Recruited Central-Location Test

    An interview located at a convenient location in which participants that have been contacted and qualified prior to the interview go.

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  • Pre-Recruited Participants

    Consumers or business professionals who are contacted (by telephone, mail, or in person) and invited to participate in a research study scheduled for a future date and time, provided they qualify. People who agree and are eligible are often compensated for their participation in the research.

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  • Pre-Selected Sample

    Consumers or business professionals who are contacted (by telephone, mail, or in person) and invited to participate in a research study scheduled for a future date and time, provided they qualify. People who agree and are eligible are often compensated for their participation in the research.

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  • Pre-Teen

    A young person aged around 8/9 to 12, who does not consider themselves to be a child, but is not yet a teenager.

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  • Pre-Test

    Can be used to refer to two different activities. A pre-test is where a questionnaire is tested on a (statistically) small sample of respondents before a full-scale study, in order to identify any problems such as unclear wording or the questionnaire taking too long to administer. A pre-test can also be used to refer to an initial measurement (such as brand or advertising awareness) before an experimental treatment is administered and subsequent measurements are taken. 

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  • Pre-Test - Post-Test Control Group Design

    A type of true experimental design where test units are randomly allocated to an experimental group and a control group. Both groups are measured before and after the experimental group is exposed to a treatment.

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  • Pre-Test Manipulation Interaction Bias

    Pre-test manipulation interaction bias is present when the pre-testing in an experiment heightens participants’ sensitivity and makes them behave in a systematically different way during the experiment that prevents the results being generalised to a population of interest (i.e. it reduces external validity).

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  • Pre-Testing

    When the questionnaire is tried on a (statistically) small group of respondents to identify any unforeseen problems such as the wording or flow of the questions.

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  • Pre-Testing Bias

    When the pre-testing in an experiment has a systematic effect on the main experimental results, regardless of what happens between the measurements.

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  • Pre-Wave

    The result of a study conducted to obtain a snapshot or reading of current conditions prior to some change in market conditions or the introduction of some test conditions. The result is then used as a standard for comparison with subsequent studies.

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  • Precision (lack of)

    Relates to accuracy in sampling and consistency in repeated sampling. If data seems to be widely scattered and would be difficult to duplicate, there would be a lack of precision due to the high standard error. A larger sample size will yield improved precision in any case.

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  • Precision Level

    A measure of the spread of a confidence interval. The narrower the interval, the higher the level of precision.

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  • Predictive Dialing

    A telemarketing method where a computer dials the phone number and then, if a connection is established, an interviewer takes over the call.

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  • Predictive Function

    Using descriptive and diagnostic research to pre-determine the success of a marketing plan prior to its execution.

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  • Predictive Validity

    The accuracy of forecasting with a particular measurement scale whose success is monitored to determine whether it will be a good predictor in the future.

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  • Predictive Validity

    The degree to which a measured marketing phenomenon at one point in time is able to predict another marketing phenomenon at a future point in time.

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  • Predictor Variables

    Factors that are considered in determining future success of a marketing campaign. Examples of these independent variables are demographics and attitudes of the target market.

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  • Preference

    The state of being preferred; i.e., chosen over another or others.

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  • Preference Marketing

    Behavioral Targeting (also known as preference marketing, behavioral advertising, behavioral marketing, or online profiling) is defined by the FTC as “the tracking of a consumer’s online activities over time – including the searches the consumer has conducted, the Web pages visited, and the content viewed – in order to deliver advertising targeted to the individual consumer’s interests.”

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  • Preference Test

    A test where research participants are asked to compare a number of products or services and express their preferences.

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  • Prefix

    Refers to the first three digits of a telephone number, also called an exchange. These digits are a way to identify the area that the phone number is located in.

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  • Presentation Software

    Software that is easy-to-use on personal computers to prepare presentations and produce effective reports.

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  • Pricing Research

    Research that aims to determine how demand for a product or service will vary with changes in price.

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  • Primary Data

    Data that are collected specifically for a current research project.

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  • Primary Data

    Data that is gathered to solve a particular problem as opposed to secondary data which is previously gathered and would need to be located to solve a problem.

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  • Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area (PMSA)

    Defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as two metropolitan areas that are adjacent to each other.

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  • Primary Purchaser

    The person responsible for 50% or more of the household grocery purchases.

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  • Primary Research

    Research conducted in search of new data to solve a marketing information discrepancy.

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  • Primary Sampling Units

    The geographic units that will be covered by a survey.

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  • Privacy Policy

    A company’s policy as stated on the webpage that explains the privacy rights of the consumer and the company by confirming data collection techniques, data storage, how the data is used, and who will have access to the data.

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  • Probability (or density) Function

    Identifies the probabilities of each of the possible values to be achieved. Generally comes in the form of a table or an equation.

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  • Probability Distribution

    Identifies the probabilities of each of the possible values to be achieved. Generally comes in the form of a table or an equation.

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  • Probability of a Simple Event

    The numerical value representing the likelihood of an event occurring. The value will be between one and zero, with one occurring every time and zero never occurring. The sum of all probabilities associated with a sample must equal one.

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  • Probability of an Event

    Determined by adding together the probabilities of all of the simple events that contribute to an event.

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  • Probability Proportionate to Size

    An approach used in cluster sampling where the clusters have widely differing numbers of units in them. Clusters are selected with a probability proportional to the number of units in them. The units within each selected cluster are then sampled with a probability inversely proportional to the number of units, so that the probability of selecting each unit from the selected clusters is equal.

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  • Probability Sample

    A sample where all units in the population of interest have a known and non-zero chance of being selected. Examples of probability samples are: simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster.

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  • Probing

    Follow-up questions to clarify why a particular response was given. Can occur in quantitative or qualitative research.

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  • Probing

    The asking of additional questions to encourage a respondent to enlarge on a particular answer or opinion so that their answer can be further understood by the researcher.

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  • Probit Model

    A type of multiple regression analysis where the categorical dependent variable using a cumulative normal curve as opposed to a logistic one.

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  • Processing Error

    An inconsistency in data due to an error in the transfer of information from the document data was collected on to the computer. Examples include the incorrect entry of data and incorrect assignment of values.

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  • Product Category

    The class of products to which a brand belongs, i.e., shampoo is a product category.

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  • Product Concept Testing

    A pretest of a particular product with a consumer group before the product is placed in the market.

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  • Product Image

    The impression created about the characteristics of a product or service. These may be perceived or real attributes and they can be conveyed through communications, packaging, or personal experience.

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  • Product Moment Correlation Coefficient

    A statistic that is calculated to determine whether a linear relationship exists between two metric variables and it takes values between -1 and +1 (depending on the degree of the relationship). A negative value indicates that the variables move in opposite directions and a positive value indicates that they move in the same direction. A value of 0 indicates that there is no linear relationship (although there may be a non-linear relationship).

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  • Product Movement Data Syndicated Services

    Retail and wholesale data that a company collects, packages, and sells to many firms.

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  • Product Placement Study

    A study in which consumers respondents are asked to try products in their own homes as they would normally use the product, instead of in a lab setting. Can also be called a product test.

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  • Product Placement Test

    Product placement test can refer to two types of tests:

    • A home use test, where participants evaluate products in their own homes or in a natural usage context.
    • A test where products are placed on retail shelves to observe the rate of sale.
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  • Product Positioning Research

    Research performed to measure how brands are perceived compared to one another’s key dimensions so that they can be properly positioned in a target market.

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  • Product Pricing Research

    A look at consumer sensitivity to a range of prices for a particular product.

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  • Product Prototype Tests

    Tests designed to determine how target consumers would react to early editions of new products.

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  • Professional Researcher Association (PRC)

    An application and exam based program designed to recognize the qualifications and expertise of marketing and opinion research professionals.

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  • Professional Respondent

    A term with negative connotation that refers to respondents that participate often in market research studies with different companies. Moderators look to remove professional respondents so that they might have a new unpracticed approach with a fresh participant. Also, often times professional respondents participate for the incentives rather than truly contributing to the marketing research efforts.

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  • Profile

    A general term that covers the description of a population of interest (or a sub-group) according to certain characteristics. For example a demographic profile describes consumers in terms of their age, gender, life-cycle stage, and occupation.

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  • Profiling

    A process of meeting customers needs by collecting information about them. This information can be obtained with volunteered/declared information from the customer or collected passively (observing the customer’s behavior patterns).

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  • Programmatic Research

    Research performed to better understand more efficient marketing processes by looking at market segmentation, opportunity analysis, and/or consumer attitude and product usage.

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  • Project

    A specific marketing research or opinion research study with its own unique set of specifications.

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  • Project Director

    The person who coordinates all phases of a research project.

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  • Projectability

    The ability for market researchers to take the results from their sample and be able to apply those results to the entire population thereby assuming that the sample was a true representative of the population.

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  • Projection

    An expected future result based on birth, death, and migration assumptions to describe a particular demographic characteristic for population or number of households.

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  • Projective

    Techniques used in focus groups or interviews to stimulate the participant’s minds by having them think in more creative and subjective ways than they might without the moderator’s techniques. Sentence completion, expressive drawing, anthropomorphization, and associations are all examples of projective techniques.

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  • Projective Techniques

    A form of disguised questioning that encourages participants to attribute their feelings, beliefs, or motivations to another person, object, or situation. Examples of projective techniques are word association, sentence completion, and thematic apperception tests.

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  • Projective Test Technique

    A method of getting the respondent to project himself into role-playing. Used in qualitative research.

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  • Prompt Material

    Any material that is shown to participants in research projects.

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  • Prompted Awareness

    The percentage of respondents who claim to have seen something (e.g. a brand or an advert) after having been shown some form of stimulus material.

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  • Prompting

    Where respondents are made aware of the possible answers to questions by an interviewer either reading them out or showing some material during the research.

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  • Proportional Allocation

    A study that is sampled with a proportion that is maintained between the sample and the size of the stratum and the size of the stratum compared to the size of the population.

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  • Proportional Sample

    The sample elements drawn is proportional to the relative number of elements of the population.

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  • Proportionate Stratified Sample

    A type of probability sample where the probability of a unit being selected from a stratum is proportional to the number of units in the stratum.

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  • Proposal

    An outline (usually in writing) of how marketing research data could be collected and used to solve a specific problem. Proposals are normally written by research suppliers and they usually are divided into the following sections: background, objectives, methodology, costing, and timings.

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  • Proprietary Research

    Market research that is owned exclusively by the client who purchased the research.

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  • Proprietary Techniques

    Research techniques that are considered to be the intellectual property of a research supplier.

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  • Prototype

    A model or mock-up of a proposed product or package.

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  • Pseudo Research

    Research that is carried out for reasons other than to reduce the risk in a resource-allocation decision.

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  • Psychodrawing

    A projective technique where participants are asked to attach abstract notions such as colours, shapes, or symbols to objects.

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  • Psychographics

    Quantified psychological profiles of individuals, based on their attitudes and behavior. The “why” of consumer research to attempt to explain why consumers behave the way that they do. Research is conducted by observing and analyzing personality traits and values. Very closely related to lifestyle research.

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  • Pupilometer

    A device used to measure the dilation of a participant’s pupil in response to a visual stimulus.

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  • Purchase Intent Scales

    A way of measuring a participant’s intention to buy a particular product.

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  • Purchase Intention Measurement

    A measure of the respondent's attitude toward buying a product or service.

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  • Purchase Intentions

    A measure of respondents’ attitudes towards buying a particular product or service.

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  • Purchase Panel

    A group of selected research participants who have agreed to provide pre-designated information at regular specified intervals over an extended period of time. The information may be on purchasing, media consumption, or life-style activities.

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  • Purpose

    A set of objectives that a research project is meant to achieve. The main focus of the research is how the information gathered will be used.

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  • Purposive Sample

    A type of non-probability sample where the required numbers of units with particular characteristics are specified.

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  • Purposive Sampling

    This process is the selection of a particular sample on purpose. Popular with qualitative research, the variables to which the sample is drawn up are analytically and theoretically linked to the research questions.

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  • Push-Poll

    This is a political campaign technique. The individual convinces the respondent that they are participating in research when the actual objective is to influence the views of the respondent.

    (For more information, see "Push polls" - Deceptive Advocacy/Persuasion Under the Guise of Legitimate Polling)

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  • Q-Sort Scaling

    A type of comparative scale where respondents are asked to sort between 60-90 objects (usually) into piles according to some criteria. It is a useful technique for sorting relatively large numbers of objects quite quickly.

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  • Q-Sorting

    A ranking process using card sorts.

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  • Q-Spread

    A measurement taken to see the difference between sample quartiles one and three.

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  • QRCA

    Qualitative Research Consultants Association

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  • Qualified Refusal

    Where a respondent is eligible to participate in the research study, but for some reason refuses or is unable to complete the study.

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  • Qualified Respondent

    The respondent meets the requirements for inclusion in the sample.

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  • Qualifying Questions

    These questions are used to determine whether or not a potential respondent is qualified to proceed with the research interview or survey.

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  • Qualitative

    Research conducted that cannot be quantified or analyzed quantitatively. Qualitative data requires subjective analysis as it is not collected empirically. Focus groups, interviews, and open-ended questions are all forms of qualitative research.

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  • Qualitative Assistant (QA)

    The individual responsible for greeting the focus participants as they arrive at the facility and for preparing the room. The responsibilities of a hostess include providing food for the participants and the client observers, rescreening respondents when they arrive, preparing name tags, etc. May also be referred to as a Host/Hostess.

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  • Qualitative Interview

    A type of qualitative research involving an unstructured personal interview with a single respondent, conducted by a highly skilled interviewer. The purpose of in-depth interviews is to understand the underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings of respondents on a particular subject.

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  • Qualitative Research

    The use of unstructured exploratory techniques (such as group discussions and in-depth interviews) that are based on statistically small samples in order to understand a problem further.

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  • Qualitative Variable

    A result that cannot be quantified but rather belongs to a category or classification. Marital status, sex, and occupation are examples.

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  • Quality Control

    A set of procedures to ensure that interviewers follow the instructions provided by the sampling plan.

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  • Quantitative Research

    The collection of (statistically) large samples of quantitative data and usually some form of statistical analysis. Quantitative research is often used to substantiate the findings from qualitative research.

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  • Quantitative Research

    Research performed in search of empirical evaluations explaining consumer attitudes, behavior, and/or performance. Conducted to forecast numerical measurements of product acceptance and consumer purchase intents.

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  • Quantitative Variable

    Variables that already exist as numbers or variables that are continuous or discreet. Age, weight, and income are all examples.

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  • Quartiles

    The four quarters in an observation distribution that each identify 25% of the observations.

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  • Quasi-Experimental Design

    A type of experimental design that applies some but not all of the procedures of a true experiment and lacks full experimental control. Examples of quasi-experimental designs are: time series and multiple time series.

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  • Quasi-Experiments

    A study that cannot be assigned to a respondent at random due to the need of a pre-existing condition or a lack of control for scheduling.

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  • Query

    A search function within a database designed to find the answer to a question.

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  • Questionnaire

    A structured technique for collecting data consisting of a series of carefully worded questions that, with consumer responses, would aid researchers in achieving necessary data to fulfill research objectives. Questionnaires can be self-completion or administered by an interviewer, they can be completed orally or in writing.

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  • Questionnaire Administration

    The process of asking questions and recording the answers. A self-administered questionnaire is completed by the respondent and not administered by an interviewer.

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  • Quintiles

    A set of four values that divide the total frequency into five equal parts.

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  • Quota

    The required number of units.

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  • Quota Sample

    A type of non-probability sample where the required numbers of units with particular characteristics are specified.

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  • Quota Sample

    A sample requiring a set number of respondents that possess specific and identified characteristics. The sample is not random because of the specificity of the target respondents.

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  • Quota Sheet

    The form used to track completed interviews on a study. Normally used by the supervisor.

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  • Race

    A group of people within a family, tribe, or nation that belong to the same species. Similar to a breed. Types acknowledged by the U.S. Census Bureau are: Aleut, American Indian, Asian, Black (or Negro), Chinese, Eskimo, Filipino, Guamanian, Hawaiian, Japanese, Korean, Samoan, Vietnamese, White, or "other".

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  • Random

    A process of selection that gives an equal opportunity for each item to be chosen.

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  • Random Digit Dialing

    A method of reducing sampling frame error and involves the use of randomly generated numbers for a telephone survey, instead of relying on telephone directories or other lists of numbers that may exclude certain types of consumers.

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  • Random Digit Dialing (RDD)

    A computer based form of telephone sampling that pulls telephone numbers at random whether they are listed or not listed to provide a representative survey sample.

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  • Random Error

    An error that affects measurements in an unpredictable way due to random chance changes or differences.

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  • Random Error

    Unexpected errors that occur in a measuring process to skew the data in a way that could not be recreated.

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  • Random Sample

    A sample where all units in the population of interest have a known and non-zero chance of being selected. Examples of probability samples are: simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster.

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  • Random Sampling

    A sample chosen that allows all subjects an equal probability of being selected. Can also be called a probability sample.

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  • Random Sampling Error

    The error caused by a particular sample not being representative of the population of interest due to random variation.

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  • Random Variable

    A dependent variable that is evaluated by an outcome when that outcome has an equal probability of occurrence. An example would be either the “heads” or “tails” of a coin toss, where the outcome becomes the random variable.

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  • Randomisation

    The use of random chance to assign experimental units to different treatments.

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  • Randomised Block Design

    A type of statistical experimental design where units are blocked (or grouped) on the basis of one external variable to ensure that the experimental and control group are matched on that variable.

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  • Randomization

    Within an experiment, randomization is the process of choosing subjects at random to be part of all groups to include all characteristics in each group.

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  • Range

    A measure of variability that is the difference between the largest and the smallest value in a set of values.

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  • Range

    The spread of data, from the lowest variable to the highest variable.

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  • Rank Order Scaling

    A type of comparative scale where respondents are presented with a set of objects and they are asked to rank them first, second, third etc according to a criterion. Each rank is only used once.

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  • Rank-Order Scales

    A technique used for measuring a respondent’s rank preference when comparing a set of items.

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  • Ranked Scale

    A scale where the numbers assigned represent relative amounts of the characteristic being measured, e.g. first or second in a ranking. The distances between intervals in an ordinal scale are usually not equal - i.e. the difference between the values of first and second is not the same as the difference between third and fourth in a ranking.

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  • Ranking

    A type of comparative scale where respondents are presented with a set of objects and they are asked to rank them first, second, third etc according to a criterion. Each rank is only used once.

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  • Rapport

    The level of cooperation achieved between the interviewer and the respondent.

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  • Rate

    A fixed ratio that represents the relationship between two things.

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  • Rating

    A procedure used to evaluate the concept, product, advertisement, etc. being tested. It requires each respondent to select one response from a scale to indicate the degree of his/her opinion.

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  • Rating Scales

    Scales are measurement devices that allow respondents to report the degree of their opinions. Scales are usually in the form of statements or numbers. Pictures may also be used.

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  • Ratio

    A measurement that explains one number or object in relation to another number or object.

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  • Ratio Scale

    A response scale for a survey or questionnaire that categorizes responses ranking them from smallest to largest and has a consistent range between each of the category choices. This scale is for variables that have a definitive zero as in age, weight, and height. An example of a ratio scale would be, “What height group do you belong to,” with options “[<5’] [5’-5’6”] [5’7”-6’] [6’<] and so on.

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  • Ratio Scale

    A type of interval scale with a zero point, which represents an absence of the characteristic being measured. The data from ratio scales can be analysed statistically (which is not possible with data from nominal or ordinal scales).

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  • Raw Data

    Data before analysis or weighting.

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  • Re-Screening

    A step in the market research process to confirm that participants truly qualify to the sample being studied. Re-screening typically occurs when participants arrive at a research location and are examined before the research process begins. The questions asked of the participant often contain questions that were originally part of the recruiting process.

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  • Reach

    The proportion of a specified television audience or universe who have been contacted by an advert at least once.

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  • Reactive Bias

    A type of experimental error where participants in an experiment change their normal behaviour as a direct result of the experimental conditions.

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  • Readership

    The number of people who read a particular publication and it is not necessarily related to its circulation.

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  • Real-Time Tracking

    Continuous research and instantaneous data collection. Data reporting and analysis are possible with an online system.

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  • Recall Interview

    A repeat telephone call to a potential respondent to see if they can participate in a survey.

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  • Recall Measurement

    A respondent recounting what he/she remembers about something they have read, heard, or seen without the benefit of stimuli. Recall measurements can be taken without or with the benefit of some form of stimulus material. The method is used in measuring brand and advertising awareness.

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  • Recall Test

    A type of post-test that investigates respondents’ ability to recall something they may have read, heard, or seen. Recall measurements can be taken without or with the benefit of some form of stimulus material.

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  • Recommendations

    A conclusion at the end of a report to a client that offers suggestions for action that is reinforced from the research that was conducted or an assessment of the relative strengths and weaknesses of particular courses of action.

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  • Recontact

    The process of contacting a survey respondent and asking additional interview questions.

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  • Reconvened Group Discussion

    Two group discussions with the same participants that are separated by a period of time.

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  • Recruiter

    The person responsible for recruiting participants for a focus group or the person administering a questionnaire.

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  • Recruiting

    The inviting of selected participants (who meet specific eligibility criteria) to take part in a research project. The work is undertaken by a field recruiter (often just referred to as a recruiter).

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  • Recruitment

    A process that involves and confirms participants that will be used in present and future marketing research studies.

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  • Referral

    Respondents endorse others that are potentially qualified respondents.

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  • Referral Sample

    A type of non-probability sampling where initial respondents are selected at random and subsequent respondents are then selected by referrals or information from the earlier respondents.

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  • Refusal Rate

    The percentage of people who refuse to participate in a particular study.

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  • Refusals (Ref)

    Respondents who will not participate in an interview. Refusals are tracked at various points within a survey, i.e., initial refusal, qualified refusal, etc.

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  • Regression Analysis

    The analysis of the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. Its purpose is to determine whether a relationship exists and the strength of the relationship. It is also used to determine the mathematical relationship between the variables, predict the values of the dependent variable, and control other independent variables when evaluating the effect of one or more independent variables.

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  • Regression Coefficients

    Values associated with the strength of a relationship and how one variable effects another between independent and dependent variables.

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  • Regression to the Mean

    An observation throughout an experiment when the respondents tend to progressively move toward the mean average of the behavior.

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  • Rejection Region

    A set of values that land outside of an acceptable range of the t-statistic. This leads to rejecting the null hypothesis.

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  • Related Recall

    A copy testing measure that is intended to quantify a commercial's attention-getting ability. Respondents are interviewed (usually by phone) within a specific period after exposure to the advertising medium and they are asked questions to determine the proportion of people who watched a program and remembered seeing the particular commercial.

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  • Related Samples

    Multiple samples taken from the same sample group where each sample from a particular participant influences later samples taken from that same participant.

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  • Relationship Marketing

    Marketing strategies that focus on the lifetime relationship with the customer rather than the individual transactions of the customer in order to increase profit. Relationship marketing captures customer share, or the share of the customer dollar rather than the amounts of customers within the market share.

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  • Relevance

    A term used to describe whether or not some advertising or a brand proposition shares some fundamental values with a particular group of consumers.

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  • Reliability

    A consistent method that often yields the same results each time that it is measured. Also the extent to which a research process can be repeated and produce consistent results (i.e. it is free from random error).

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  • Repeat Rate

    A proportion outlining the opportunity of first time users purchasing a product for the second time.

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  • Repeat-Pairs Technique

    A technique used when respondents are asked to identify which they prefer out of two products, and then are asked again to compare.

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  • Repertoire

    The range of different brands used by consumers.

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  • Replicate

    A sub-sample that is selected in accordance to a planned geographically representative group within a sample region.

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  • Representative Sample

    A sample that contains units in the same proportion as the population of interest. An accurate sample that provides, at random, a true indication of what the population is comprised of. 

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  • Request for Proposal (RFP)

    "Request for Proposals" is a system used to obtain bids (proposals) by invitation made by a prospective client to a vendor or vendors. The prospective client is "inviting" specific written offers from vendors, suppliers, contractors, etc. before awarding business to the lowest offer or bidder. Sometimes, other criteria than "lowest bid" will dictate the award of a job to a vendor.

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  • Research Brief

    Can have two similar meanings in the context of marketing research:

    • A Brief can be a statement (usually in writing) of a business problem that could be alleviated by conducting some marketing research. Briefs are normally written by a client company for a research supplier and they usually have a background and an objectives section. A suggested methodology section can also be included.

    • A Briefing can be a training session prior to starting work on a study in which all specifications and details of the study are reviewed. This is generally followed by practice (or pilot) interviews where they are being used.

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  • Research Design

    The framework for conducting a market research project that specifies how information will be collected and analysed to answer the questions at hand.

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  • Research Design

    An overall plan of action to be followed during an experiment to be sure that the objectives are met. Often the specific procedures to solve problems are included in the research design.

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  • Research Effect

    A general term that suggests the research itself may be contributing to a change in the data.

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  • Research Methods

    This is how the research is being conducted. The research method is found in the research report. This allows for research replication.

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  • Research Proposal

    This describes the design, schedule, and budget for conducting a research project.

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  • Research Specifications

    These are the design characteristics of the proposed research.

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  • Researcher

    Any individual or organisation carrying out, or acting as a consultant on, a market research project, including those working in client organisations. (As defined in the ICC/ESOMAR INTERNATIONAL CODE ON MARKET AND SOCIAL RESEARCH)

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  • Residual

    The difference between an observed and a predicted value.

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  • Residual Error

    The portion of an error that is unexplainable after computing regression coefficients. Often due to error in measurement or omissions.

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  • Respondent

    Any individual or organisation from which information is collected for the purposes of a market research project, whether they are aware of it or not, or is approached for interview. No matter what type of survey is being conducted, the person being interviewed is always called the respondent.

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  • Respondent

    This is the individual that provides data to be collected during the research process. 

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  • Respondent Error

    A type of non-sampling error caused by respondents intentionally or unintentionally providing incorrect answers to research questions. Possible sources of respondent error can be: inability error, best light phenomenon, social group norms, or selection bias.

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  • Respondent Fatigue

    When respondents have lost interest or are disinclined to continue participating in a research project and it can lead to invalid responses (usually towards the end of the research project).

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  • Respondent Fee

    A reward given to participants or businesses for taking the time and trouble to cooperate in a marketing research study.

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  • Respondent Level Data

    Data from an individual respondent.

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  • Response

    A reply or answer to a question or statement on the questionnaire.

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  • Response Bias

    A type of non-sampling error caused by respondents intentionally or unintentionally providing incorrect answers to research questions. Possible sources of respondent error can be: inability error, best light phenomenon, social group norms, or selection bias.

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  • Response Bias

    An error in given answers to an interviewer’s questions due to misinterpretation by the participant, or the participant responding in such a way that they believe the interviewer wishes them to answer as opposed to their true feelings. Therefore, response bias can occur both deliberately and unintentionally.

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  • Response Latency

    The speed with which a respondent provides an answer.

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  • Response Rate

    The percentage of all attempted interviews that are completed.

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  • Response Rate

    The proportion of those originally drawn at random from the population who actually participate in a survey. This indicates whether the data collected accurately reflects the views of the population interviewed. Response rate can also assess whether weighting or other methods might improve the quality of the data.

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  • Response Style

    A systematic tendency of respondents to select particular categories of responses regardless of the content of the questions.

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  • Resulting Sample

    The sample that has been achieved in a particular research project (which may be different than the intended sample).

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  • Rewards

    These are also known as incentives. Respondents are provided with an incentive to participate in the research study. Managing the research survey incentives is essential for survey research.

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  • RIC

    Research Industry Coalition

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  • RILF

    Research Industry Leaders' Forum

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  • Role Playing

    A projective technique where participants are asked to play the role or assume the behavior of someone else.

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  • Rotation Procedure

    The process of asking questions or showing material to respondents in a different order for every interview according to a set of instructions. This process minimises the risk of order bias (i.e. respondents favoring objects because of their position in a list).

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  • Rule

    A well defined command instructing the researcher on what is and what is not an acceptable way to act or perform within a research study.

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  • Rustbelt

    A geographically defined area encompassing manufacturing regions in the United States that surround the Great Lakes.

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  • Sagacity Segmentation

    A means of segmenting a population of interest using life-cycle stage, income, and occupation variables.

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  • Sales Waves

    Sales Waves are respondent contacts that take place immediately upon the conclusion of a Marketing Research interview or in successive waves thereafter. A Sales Wave offers to the respondent the product or service that was the subject of the initial interview. The product or service is made directly available to the respondent at the regular or expected retail price and then is delivered to the respondent after money is exchanged via cash or the setting up of an account in the respondent's name. Almost always, at the conclusion of the Sales Wave portion of a study, all monies are returned to the respondent or the account is never collected upon. The purpose of Sales Waves is to gauge actual purchase intent and, ultimately, likely sales volume. Data gathered from Sales Waves are considered more reliable than data gathered from hypothetical purchase intent questions because the respondent is making an actual commitment with his or her own dollars. It is a discrete choice test where respondents can receive the product of service of their choice or, perhaps, no product or service at all. In this scenario it is essential that respondents have the mind-set that they are paying real dollars for whatever they order. Sales Waves are considered by some manufacturers and service providers to be required in Marketing Research projects that involve new food products, breakthrough products or services, or line extensions. Because the intent is to generate information and not sales, Sales Waves are considered legitimate Market Research. The controversy arises over respondent perceptions of sales vs. research: can respondents make this subtle but important distinction? There seem to be contradictions in the standard Marketing Research practice of utilizing Sales Waves. We make promises to respondents that we will not sell them anything and then we offer a product or service for sale at the end of the interview (or some time thereafter). Marketing Researchers have worked diligently to differentiate between selling and researching; "sugging", or Selling Under the Guise of Research, is considered a violation of research ethics. However, there is a clear distinction in the motivation or underlying reason for sales vs. Sales Waves: sales are employed to generate profits; Sales Waves are employed to generate data and information. Measuring expected sales or sales volume is a legitimate Marketing Research outcome. With recent concerns over respondent cooperation and privacy, Sales Waves are not used as often as they once were. However, they continue to be used in our industry by many large manufacturers and service providers. Ultimately, the decision as to whether to accept studies that incorporate Sales Waves is a business decision that must be made on a case-by-case basis.

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  • Salience

    A general term that can be used in two similar ways:

    1. The importance a brand holds for different groups of consumers. It is an indication of emotional closeness to, or distance from a brand.
    2. The extent to which a brand comes readily to mind (eg first mentioned in an answer to an awareness question), or the most frequently mentioned in connection with a set of associations.
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  • Sample

    A sub-group of the population of interest that has been selected for study.

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  • Sample

    A group that is selected to study as a representative of the true population for a given experiment. The study is often conducted to understand how the population will react to an item by first testing it on a sample that represents the population that the item will target.

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  • Sample Control

    The efficiency and the effectiveness of the sampling approach at reaching the units specified in the research brief.

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  • Sample Definition

    A description of the ideal (or the intended) sample for a research project.

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  • Sample Distribution

    A measurement of the responses given from a single sample organized by frequency.

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  • Sample Population

    The description of the characteristics that define a particular population from which a sample is taken.

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  • Sample Selection Error

    Sample Selection Error occurs in experiments when a bias is introduced into the way in which experimental units are assigned to groups.

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  • Sample Size

    The number of sample units to be included in the sample.

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  • Sample Space

    A set including all possible outcomes for a particular experiment.

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  • Sample Unit

    An individual member of the sample.

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  • Sampling

    A process using a segment (sample) of a population to represent the entire population’s activities, attitudes, opinions, and interests and the results from the sample study can be inferred upon the population.

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  • Sampling Distribution of the Proportion

    A normally distributed graph showing combined proportion frequencies from many samples within a single population.

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  • Sampling Distribution of the Sample Means

    A normally distributed graph showing combined mean frequencies from many samples within a single population.

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  • Sampling Distribution of the Sample Statistic

    A probability distribution displaying probabilities of all possible variables that might occur with repeated sampling.

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  • Sampling Error

    An assumed inaccuracy associated with using the sample results as an indication of the behavior of the population.

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  • Sampling Error

    The error in a survey caused by using a sample to estimate the value of a parameter in the population.

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  • Sampling Fraction

    The ratio comparing sample size to population size.

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  • Sampling Frame

    A set defining which individuals, households, or institutions qualify for a sample, then the sample is drawn from those elements.

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  • Sampling Frame

    A list of the population of interest that is used to draw the sample in a survey, e.g. a telephone directory or a list of members of a profession.

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  • Sampling Frame Error

    A type of non-sampling error in a survey caused by a sampling frame containing either more or less of a particular type of potential respondent, compared with the population of interest.

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  • Sampling Instructions

    A set of instructions given to interviewers concerning the selection of participants for a research project. These instructions must be followed exactly to ensure accurate respondent selection.

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  • Sampling Interval

    The size of the step between selected units in systematic sampling. The process of taking a list, and selecting each nth unit as a participant in a study. The interval creates random selection throughout the population and is decided upon by dividing the total population by the number of sample units desired. Also referred to as interval or Nth selection.

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  • Sampling Plan

    A set of instructions given to interviewers concerning the selection of participants for a research project. These instructions must be followed exactly to ensure accurate respondent selection.

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  • Sampling Unit

    Those units that qualify to be sampled and are available during the sampling process to be selected.

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  • Sampling with Replacement

    When sample units can be included more than once in the sample.

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  • Sampling without Replacement

     When sample units cannot be included more than once in the sample.

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  • Saturation Survey

    A survey where as many members as possible of a population of interest are contacted.

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  • Scale

    A technique used for participants to measure an object based on set characteristics. Scales are close-ended questions that require one of the offered responses as the respondent’s answer.

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  • Scale Accuracy

    The extent to which a scale is valid and reliable, i.e. free from bias and random error.

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  • Scale Reliability

    The degree to which a scale is free from random error and can reproduce consistent results.

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  • Scale Transformation

    The manipulation of scale variables to ensure comparability with other scales and enable comparisons to be made. The most frequently used scale transformation procedure is standardization.

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  • Scale Validity

    Scale Validity is whether or not a scale measures what it is intended to measure. A scale may be biased by the way in which a question is worded and therefore the results it produces are not valid.

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  • Scaled-Response Questions

    Select answer choices that are offered to contain the intensity of the attitude of the participant toward the object being measured.

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  • Scales

    Scales are measurement devices that allow respondents to report the degree of their opinions. Scales are usually in the form of statements or numbers. Pictures may also be used.

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  • Scanner Data

    The data recorded by barcode scanners.

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  • Scanner Panel

    A type of consumer panel where participants use a barcode scanner to record purchases.

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  • Scatter Diagram

    A plot of the values of two variables for all the cases or observations.

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  • Scattergram

    A plot of the values of two variables for all the cases or observations.

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  • Score

    A numerical value assigned to a response or an observation.

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  • Screener

    Testing questions used to determine if participants are suitable for specific studies.

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  • Screening

    Contacting, qualifying and inviting respondents to participate in additional research.

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  • Screening

    The procedure of asking specific questions to determine whether respondents are eligible to participate in a particular research study. This is done at the very beginning of an interview.

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  • Screening Questions

    The questions at the beginning of an interview or questionnaire to ensure that a potential respondent is eligible for the survey.

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  • Screenout

    This is a respondent that does not meet the qualifying criteria to participate in the survey research.

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  • Secondary Data

    Data that has already been collected and published for another research project (other than the one at hand). There are two types of secondary data: internal and external secondary data.

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  • Secondary Research

    The analysis of research that had been collected at an earlier time (for reasons unrelated to the current project) that can be applied to a study in progress.

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  • Sectional Center Facility (SCF)

    Geographic regions identified by the first three digits of a ZIP code.

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  • Security

    Security or confidentiality refers to the act of not divulging two types of information in a research study. First, confidentiality is maintained when study information such as client name, brand name, purpose of the research, concepts, and/or products (except as directed by the study instructions) is only provided to those who have a need to know. Confidentiality also refers to maintaining the privacy of any information collected from or about any individual respondent.

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  • Security Screening

    These are the questions, usually at the beginning of a survey, which determine whether a respondent is qualified or eligible to participate in the study. Some of these questions are intended to prevent people with special interest in the study's subject from gaining access to the study information through participation in the study.

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  • Segment

    A selected area defined by demographic characteristics as identified by a researcher.

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  • Segmentation

    The process of dividing markets into groups of consumers who are similar to each other, but different to the consumers in other groups. Separating the population into subsets by common attributes such as age, income, and product preference.

     

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  • Selection

    Procedure used to distinguish which records to investigate on means of targeted characteristics from a population.

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  • Selection Bias

    A type of non-sampling error where the sample units are selected for treatment in a particular way that produces a different profile to the population. Selection bias can be introduced by researchers and/or by respondents (putting themselves into groups to which they aspire to belong, but they do not currently belong).

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  • Selection Bias

    A bias that is present when choosing between the test group and the control group due to logical differences in the units.

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  • Selection Error

    An error that occurs in sampling when the researcher is pursuing sampling procedures that are either improper or incomplete.

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  • Selective Perception

    The act of a listener or reader choosing to filter out or not pay attention to stimuli either consciously or unconsciously.

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  • Selective Research

    The process researchers go through to determine which, of many alternatives, they will choose to study.

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  • Self Administered

    Self administered is where a respondent completes a survey without the assistance or involvement of a researcher, e.g. a self-completion questionnaire sent through the mail.

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  • Self Completion

    Self administered is where a respondent completes a survey without the assistance or involvement of a researcher, e.g. a self-completion questionnaire sent through the mail.

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  • Self-Administered Questionnaire (SAQ)

    Questionnaires that are executed without an interviewer.

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  • Self-Effacing Situation

    A situation where the true answer to a question does not reflect favorably on the respondent or it contravenes a social group norm. In order to avoid bias in the data, one should try to avoid putting respondents in self-effacing situations if possible.

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  • Self-Selection Bias

    A type of non-sampling error that occurs when respondents who chose to participate in some research are systematically different to the intended sample. This type of bias is caused by some types of respondent replying to a survey invitation more than others.

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  • Semantic Differential

    A scale that compares competitors by recognizing how each competitor ranks with a pair of words or phrases. The score or average measurement determines the correlation between a word and the object being tested. Similar to Likert Scale.

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  • Semantic Differential Scale

    A type of categorical, non-comparative scale with two opposing adjectives separated by a sequence of unlabelled categories, e.g. Good 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Poor.

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  • Semi-Structured

    An interview or questionnaire is semi-structured when many or all of the questions are open-ended, allowing the interviewer to clarify and probe the answers given by respondents.

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  • Semiotics

    The theory of signs and symbols in language and the meanings they convey. In research it is used to identify and evaluate the true meaning behind consumers' linguistic responses, to decode their cultural frames of reference, and behaviors. It employs specialist techniques to overcome the problems of conditioned or expected responses (Social Group Norms) and provides a deeper understanding of consumers' motivations.

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  • Sensitivity

    The extent to which a research technique can identify differences between sub-groups of participants.

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  • Sensitivity Panel

    A type of focus group where the same participants are convened several times over a period of time. The subsequent discussions may or may not be on the same subject.

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  • Sensory Test

    An examination of some or all aspects of products that are perceived by the five senses.

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  • Sentence and Story Completion

    A technique used to stimulate participants where the researcher begins a sentence or story and has the respondent finish the thought in their own words. This allows creativity to flow in the mind of the participant in ways that might not have surfaced on their own.

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  • Sentence Completion

    A projective technique where participants are asked to complete a number of incomplete sentences that are provided by the researcher.

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  • Sequential Bias

    When respondents tend to favor objects because of their position in a list or sequence. The objects at the beginning and at the end of a list can be remembered more than those occurring in the middle. Usual practice is to rotate a list to eliminate this type of bias.

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  • Sequential Monadic Evaluation

    Sequential Monadic Evaluation is where two or more products or ideas are each evaluated on their own, one after the other. The sequence is usually rotated to minimize order bias (i.e. respondents favoring an object or idea because of its position in a list).

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  • Sequential Sampling

    Sequential Sampling is where the sample units are drawn one by one or in groups and the results of the drawing at any stage decide whether sampling is to continue.

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  • Sequential Testing

    When a participant is utilized to test a single product, then, after evaluating the first product, is asked to test and evaluate a second related or unrelated product to the first.

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  • Sex Ratio

    A ratio finding the number of males in a population for every 100 females in the same population.

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  • Share of Mind

    The extent to which a particular brand will be thought of in relation to a specific product category.

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  • Share of Voice

    The percentage of all promotion in a specific product category that is accounted for by a particular brand.

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  • Shelf Check

    The ability to study a particular product and have information available for the product such as how many stores carry it, the number of facings, special displays, and the prices associated with the particular product.

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  • Shopper Patterns

    An observed mapping that establishes the patterns used by shopper’s footsteps within a store.

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  • Short Census Form

    A form that each American household is asked to answer every ten years for the U.S. Census Bureau.

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  • Show Cards

    A type of prompt material in the form of cards with images that are shown to participants in research studies.

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  • SIC Codes

    Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Codes were developed by the federal government to classify US businesses by their type of activity. Similar companies are grouped together and assigned a code. It is important to be able to compare companies against similar companies in their industry. The Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) system allows researchers to make these comparisons. SIC codes are 4-digit codes, designed by the Federal government, to classify business by industry type. For example, SIC 3571, Electronic Computers, is the classification for companies that manufacture computers. Many business research sources are arranged by SIC. When beginning your research on an industry, it is important to determine your SIC code. In 1997 the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS, pronounced "nakes") was adopted jointly by the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to replace the SIC. These codes were designed to be more descriptive than the SIC system and include emerging industries. However, many sources have yet to migrate to the NAICS system.

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  • Sigmoid Curve

    The S-shaped regression curve measuring growth prior to T and after T. This line is non-linear which allows it to illustrate regression of a dependent variable such as growth.

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  • Sign-Out Sheets or Sign-Off

    Records completed at the end of a study so that a facility has an accurate account of which respondents participated so that the facility keeps track of how they need to compensate the individuals.

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  • Significance Level

    The maximum probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis (or committing a type I error), equal to one minus the confidence level. When using statistics, it is the probability that a Type I error will be made. A Type I error occurs when the relationship of two things is rejected when in all actuality it is true.

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  • Significance Test

    An analysis of sample data to determine whether the data supports a hypothesis about the population from which it was drawn.

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  • Significant Difference

    In a statistical test, it must be proven that the results found are strong enough to prove that the hypothesis needs to be rejected or fails to be rejected. Variance in confidence levels change the strength of the difference needed to be substantial.

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  • Simple Correlation

    A statistic that is calculated to determine whether a linear relationship exists between two metric variables and it takes values between -1 and +1 (depending on the degree of the relationship). A negative value indicates that the variables move in opposite directions and a positive value indicates that they move in the same direction. A value of 0 indicates that there is no linear relationship (although there may be a non-linear relationship).

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  • Simple Random Sample

    A sample where all units in the population of interest have a known and non-zero chance of being selected. Examples of probability samples are: simple random, systematic, stratified and cluster.

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  • Simulated Sales Test

    A setup used to test the success of a product’s sales, potential through trial and use, in an artificial market setting that imitates the true conditions of the marketplace.

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  • Simulated Test Market

    A type of laboratory experiment that aims to imitate real life, where respondents are selected, interviewed, and then observed making or discussing their purchases. Simulated test markets can lead to mathematical models used to forecast factors such as awareness, trial, sales volumes, impact on other products etc.

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  • Simulated Test Market (STM)

    The testing of a product’s success done through statistics and data analysis from survey results. This method is less expensive than a market simulation.

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  • Simulation

    A model composed of mathematical and logical relationships designed to represent an actual system and indicate how the real system would react in various circumstances.

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  • Single Cross-Sectional Design

    A type of research design where one sample is drawn from the population of interest only once.

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  • Single Item Scale

    A measurement scale that gathers opinions about an object on a single dimension.

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  • Single Product Test

    A study or part of a study in which the respondents evaluate only one stimulus on its own merits and there is no comparison with other stimuli. The stimulus can be a product, a concept, or an advertisement etc.

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  • Single Response Question

    A question that asks respondents for only one answer.

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  • Single Source Data

    Data on a variety of behavioral habits from consumers in the same households, such as TV watching, reading, and shopping habits.

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  • Single-Number Research

    A lack of research so that results are dependent on a single statistic.

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  • Site Evaluation

    Assessing a geographical location by the demographic and economic characteristics that it contains, as a process of determining whether the area yields a market that will cater to the offered good or service.

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  • Situation Analysis

    Part of the marketing planning process that deals with understanding the environment and the market (by identifying opportunities and threats) and assessing a firm's competitive position (by identifying its strengths and weaknesses).

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  • Skewed

    A weighted distribution that is not symmetrical which results in having one tail longer than the other on a frequency curve. The skew is titled after the longest tail, for example, if the right side had the longest tail, it would be called skewed right.

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  • Skewness

    Refers to the symmetry of a distribution. A skewed distribution is one where the mean, the median, and the mode have different values, whereas in a symmetrical distribution they all have the same value.

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  • Skip Pattern

    A survey format that reacts to the respondent’s previous answer to a question. The survey might read “If no, skip to question 6” because the questions that immediately follow the initial question will relate to the initial.

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  • Skip Pattern

    A question used to guide an interviewer through a survey to different questions (i.e. skipping some questions), depending on the answers given.

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  • Smiling Face Scale

    A type of pictorial scale that consists of a balanced series of facial expressions that are often used in children’s research to obtain satisfaction ratings.

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  • Smoothing

    The process of removing fluctuations in an ordered series of data.

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  • Snowball Samples

    An additional convenience sample pulled from referrals that were given by current participants.

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  • Snowball Sampling

    A type of non-probability sampling where initial respondents are selected at random and subsequent respondents are then selected by referrals or information from the earlier respondents.

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  • Social Class

    A method of dividing a population of interest into groups usually based on income and occupation of the head of household, although other variables can also be used. The ESOMAR social grades (A, B, C1, C2, D, E1, E2, & E3) are based on the terminal education age and occupation of the main income earner.

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  • Social Desirability

    The tendency for respondents to give answers that are socially desirable or acceptable, that may not be accurate.

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  • Social Grades

    A method of dividing a population of interest into groups usually based on income and occupation of the head of household, although other variables can also be used. The ESOMAR social grades (A, B, C1, C2, D, E1, E2, & E3) are based on the terminal education age and occupation of the main income earner.

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  • Social Group Norms

    Expected overt modes of behavior that constitute culturally acceptable ways of behaving in specific situations. Participants in market research projects may well bias their responses in order to conform to expected behavior.

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  • Social Indicator

    The quality of life analyzed to produce a numerical measure.

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  • Social Indicators

    Statistics that describe social rather than economic variables (e.g. birth rate, life expectancy at birth, and doctors per thousand of the population).

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  • Socio-Economic Groups

    A method of dividing a population of interest into groups usually based on income and occupation of the head of household, although other variables can also be used. The ESOMAR social grades (A, B, C1, C2, D, E1, E2, & E3) are based on the terminal education age and occupation of the main income earner.

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  • Socio-Economic Information

    Information that is based on the occupation and income level of the head of household.

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  • Solomon Four-Group Design

    Research in which two groups of both the experimental and control groups are studied to reduce the likeliness of irrelevant variables in the research.

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  • Solomon Four-Group, Six-Study Design

    A type of true experimental design where test units are randomly allocated to two experimental groups and two control groups. One of the experimental groups and one of the control groups is measured. Both experimental groups are then exposed to a treatment. Afterwards both experimental and control groups are measured. Six measurements are taken in all and the design aims to account for pre-testing bias and pre-test manipulation interaction bias.

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  • Spearman Rank-Order Correlation

    A method of analysis for ordinal data and correlation relationships.

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  • Specialist Research

    A form of exploratory research that involves discussing a research problem with someone (or a group of people) with experience on a particular subject.

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  • Specialized Service or Support Firms

    Firms that complete specific parts of the research for several corporate clients. Examples of provided services are data processing or statistical analysis.

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  • Specifications

    A list of characteristics that participants must possess in order to qualify for a particular survey, interview, or focus group. These characteristics often include demographics, product use behavior, product awareness, etc.

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  • Speedsters

    Speedsters are respondents that do not read the survey research questions and only select random answers to finish the survey as fast as possible. To report Speedsters, visit PureSample.

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  • Split Ballot Technique

    A procedure where a sample is divided into two halves and each receives a slightly different questionnaire.

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  • Split Run

    A technique in advertising research that involves placing an advertisement in one form in half of the copies of a given publication and in another form in the other half. The purpose is to compare the relative effectiveness of the two forms of advertisement.

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  • Split-Half Technique

    A method used to check measuring instruments where half of the data is computed and is then correlated against the other half of data. A correlation coefficient of .9 would ensure an acceptable level of reliability in measurement.

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  • Sponsor

    The client or organization paying for the research.

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  • Sponsor/Sponsorship

    Corporate attempts to gain association with a site by helping to fund that site by placing an advertisement on the site. The advertiser gains from either a content integration or a conventional ad.

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  • Spontaneous Awareness

    A measure of how many respondents can quote a brand name without any assistance on behalf of the interviewer.

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  • Spurious Association

    Additional relationships to the dependent variable that, when changed, may cause changes in the dependent variable.

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  • Spurious Correlation

    When two variables appear to change together but there is no causal relationship between them.

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  • Stability

    Consistency in results after being tested multiple times. Mostly refers to the low probability of varying each time the object is tested.

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  • Standard Deviation

    A measure of dispersion that is found mathematically by the positive square root of the average squared difference between the mean and the sample or population values.

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  • Standard Deviation

    A measure of variability (or dispersion) of a distribution and it is equal to the square root of the variance.

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  • Standard Error

    A measure of the amount of sampling error present and it is equal to the standard deviation. The error between the mean and the actual value as defined by the standard deviation. Standard error can also be found by taking the square root of the variance.

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  • Standard Error of the Mean

    A measure of variability (or dispersion) of a distribution and it is equal to the square root of the variance.

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  • Standard Industrial Classification (SIC)

    A means of classifying businesses based on the products or services they provide.

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  • Standard Industrial Classification (SICP)

    Assigned codes (usually 4 digits but can be as many as 6) from the U.S. Department of Commerce used to classify businesses. Codes with additional characters relate to the specificity of the classification.

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  • Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA)

    A term, no longer used by the U.S. Bureau of Census, that represented a region including one or more counties surrounding a central urban stretch.

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  • Standard Normal Distribution

    A distribution curve that is centered on the mean which is equal to zero and the standard deviation is one.

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  • Standardisation

    A scale transformation procedure that involves manipulating data from different types of scales so that they can then be compared. It consists of subtracting the sample mean from each score and dividing by the standard deviation.

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  • Stapel Scale

    A type of categorical, non-comparative scale that is similar to a semantic differential scale except that instead of having two opposing adjectives, there is only one adjective in between a sequence of positive and negative categories. Respondents indicate how relevant each single characteristic is to an object in question.

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  • Stapel Scale

    A scale ranging from -5 to +5 that asks respondents to choose how well a given word (characteristic) describes a product or service and whether that strength portrays a positive or negative image.

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  • Starting Point

    The initial number chosen when utilizing an Nth sampling interval.

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  • State Data Center

    A central location that organizes all of the state’s data (a planning agency, university, or library) that the U.S. Census Bureau utilizes for training, assistance, and consultation purposes.

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  • Static Group

    A type of pre-experimental design where there are two groups; an experimental group and a control group. The test units are not assigned randomly between both groups. The experimental group is exposed to a treatment and afterwards, both groups are measured.

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  • Static-Group Comparison

    Pre-testing a research design using both an experimental and a control group. There is a lack of random selection for the sample and there are no pre-measurements taken.

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  • Statistic

    A calculated numerical quantity derived from the number of observations and occurrences in a sample.

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  • Statistical Control

    An adjustment to an equation to prevent confounded variables from adjusting the dependent variable’s value within each treatment condition.

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  • Statistical Design

    A type of experimental design that allows for the statistical analysis and control of external variables. Examples of statistical design are: randomized blocks, Latin square, and factorial design.

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  • Statistical Efficiency

    Involves a comparison of the sampling errors generated by different sampling procedures. A statistically efficient sampling procedure is one that produces fewer sampling errors for the same sample size.

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  • Statistical Inference

    Making conclusions about a population from the results of a sample.

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  • Statistical Significance

    Refers to whether some research results genuinely reflect a population of interest in some way or whether the results could occur by chance. Statistical significance is determined by comparing the research results with the values defined by the confidence interval.

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  • Statistical Test

    Measures of significance applied to collected data using a probability sample. This determines if the null hypothesis might be rejected and there is a degree of reliable difference between the two data sets.

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  • Statistics

    Practice of collecting, organizing, describing, and analyzing data to draw conclusions from the data to apply to a cause.

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  • Stimulus Material

    Any material that is shown to participants in research projects.

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  • Stimulus/Stimuli

    Printed cards, pictures, statements, actual products, or advertisements given or shown to a respondent during the course of an interview, and usually relating to specific questions within the questionnaire. These aid the respondent in answering the question.

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  • Stochastic Fancy

    Another term describing chance or randomness.

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  • Stochastic Process

    A process where there is an element of random variation.

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  • Story Boards

    A set of boards that illustrate the main points of a proposed TV commercial, details of dialogue, and sound effects are also included.

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  • Story Completion

    A projective technique where participants are asked to provide the conclusion to a number of incomplete stories provided by the researcher.

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  • Strata

    A population segment based on stated characteristics.

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  • Strategic Partnering

    A partnership entered by two or more market research firms with difference skills and resources to provide their clients with a more complete package.

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  • Stratified Random Sample

    A more specific representative sample that first divides the population into strata per certain characteristics, then a particular number participants are randomly selected from each strata (determined by percentages in the actual population).

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  • Stratified Sample

    A type of probability sample where the units in a population of interest are divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive strata and a (proportionate or disproportionate) random sample is drawn from each stratum.

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  • Stratum Chart

    A set of line charts where the data are successively aggregated over the series. The magnitudes of each variable are represented by the areas between the line charts.

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  • Strike Rate

    The proportion of respondents contacted in a survey who qualify for the survey.

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  • Structured Observation

    A research study in which the observer records what they are witnessing. Can be done by filling out a questionnaire form or counting the occurrences of a certain activity.

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  • Structured Observation

    A form of observation study where the behavior of interest and the method of observation are clearly specified in advance of the study.

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  • Structured Query Language (SQL)

    Interfacing programming language that accesses data from a data warehouse.

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  • Structured Question

    A questionnaire that already includes fixed answers. The interviewer reads the question and answers and records which answer the respondent selected.

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  • Structured Questions

    Questions where the choice alternatives for respondents are all specified.

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  • Structured Response

    The respondent must choose from predetermined responses provided on the questionnaire.

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  • Stub

    A row heading in banner format tabulations. It is usual practice to have the dependent variables as stubs.

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  • Sub Sample

    A sample of a sample, which may or may not be selected using the same approach as the original sample.

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  • Sub-Block

    Recognized by the U.S. Census Bureau as the smallest segment of the country for which demographic data is provided.

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  • Subject

    The item that the study is being performed on. 

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  • Subjective Question

    A survey question that requires the respondent to generate a response in their own words as opposed to selecting an answer from a list.

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  • Sugging

    This is the unethical practice of selling under the guise of research. The individual purports to collect market research from the respondent but is actually attempting to make a sale. SUGGING is quite harmful for respondent cooperation and it is one of the reasons why potential participants in market research projects are reluctant to take part.

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  • Sum of Squares due to Regression

    Using regression to explain variation.

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  • Sunbelt

    The South and West regions of the United States defined by the U.S. Census Bureau.

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  • Supervisor's Instructions

    Exact directions written for the field service so that each survey will be conducted the same way.

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  • Surrogate Error

    A type of non-sampling error where someone other that the intended respondent participates in the research and this produces a systematic difference between the resulting sample and the intended sample.

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  • Surrogate Information Error

    An error formed by an inconsistency between the information sought by the researcher and the information that is needed to solve a problem.

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  • Survey Objectives

    The information that researchers are looking to use as decision making information from the questionnaire results.

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  • Survey Research

    A method of research to collect participant responses on facts, opinions, and attitudes through questionnaires.

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  • Surveys

    Surveys involve a (statistically) large number of interviews with respondents, using pre-designed questionnaires.

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  • Synchronous Online Groups

    An online focus group formed by one or more moderators, participants (usually around six), and clients have an opportunity to participate also in modified rooms.

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  • Syndicated Research

    Where the findings and costs of a research project are shared (partially or fully) among a number of clients.

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  • Syndicated Research

    Research performed by a firm that decides the population, questions to be asked, and intervals between studies. Syndicated research results are often purchased by multiple clients who then share results and costs.

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  • Syndicated Service Research Firms

    Marketing research firms that collect, package, and sell their data to many clients (each client receives the same information).

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  • Synectics

    A type of brain storming where the participants, from a variety of different backgrounds, are asked to solve a specific problem. The approach is intended to increase the creativity of ideas produced.

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  • Systematic Error

    An error that affects measurements in a consistent way.

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  • Systematic Sample

    A method of randomly selecting a sample by using every Nth unit from a population until the sample quota is reached. This type of interval sampling should also start with a random unit.

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  • Systematic Sample

    A type of probability sample where every nth unit is included in the sample from a list of the population of interest. The value of n is calculated by dividing the number of units in the population of interest by the required sample size.

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  • Systemic Error

    An error in the methods or implementation of the research.

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  • T Distribution

    A symmetrical bell-shaped distribution that is used for testing samples smaller than 30.

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  • T Test

    A statistical test that compares a sample mean with a hypothesized mean for a population of interest. The test is appropriate for small sample sizes (less than 30) or when the population variance is unknown. The test is also designed for comparing the differences between two means.

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  • T-Commerce

    All commerce that occurs through interactive television.

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  • T-Distribution

    A frequency distribution used with small samples that does not peak as high as a normal distribution.

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  • T-Scope

    A device that allows a participant to look at some stimulus material (e.g. packaging or a brand name) for a pre-defined brief period of time. The aim is to investigate the stand out and/or recognizability of the material under investigation.

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  • T-Test

    A statistical hypothesis test that is based on a single mean when the sample size is not large enough to use the Z-test.

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  • Tab

    Tabulating or calculating collected survey responses. The tabulations or calculations are can completed by computer or manually.

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  • Tab (aka Tabulate)

    The process of counting the various responses to each question asked in a survey.

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  • Tab Houses

    Specialist suppliers of research data and simple analysis.

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  • Tab Plan

    A plan that details the column and row headings in the cross-tabulations that are produced from the data.

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  • Table of Random Digits

    Digits appearing in a completely random order within a table.

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  • Tabulation

    A frequency count of each question’s answers.

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  • Tachistoscope

    A device used for recognition tests by changing the intensity and exposure of images. This device is often used in package testing.

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  • Tally

    A way of tallying or counting by accumulating identical lines into groups of five, i.e., 1111 1111. Each mark or line represents one respondent or item.

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  • Tally Sheet

    A form used by each interviewer on a job to track the result of each contact made on a study; whether it be by phone or in person. This form may also be referred to as a "Call Record Sheet", Contact Record", a "Dialing Record", or a "Tick Sheet." A new tally should be used every day of a job by each interviewer.

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  • Target Audience

    A group that is selected to study as a representative of the true population for a given experiment. The study is often conducted to understand how the population will react to an item by first testing it on a sample that represents the population that the item will target.

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  • Target Population

    A group with specific characteristics about whom the researcher wants to know more and from whom a sample will be drawn. 

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  • Taste Test

    A test where participants evaluate the taste of a product, either on its own or compared with other products. Taste tests are often conducted "blind" where brand names, packaging, and other identifying items are removed. Taste tests are usually conducted at a central location, although they can be carried out in participants' homes.

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  • Taste Test

    Research involving the comparison of food products to each other. For example, the respondent will taste various versions of cola and determine which cola they prefer based upon palatability, desirability, and preference.

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  • Teleology

    A consequential approach to evaluating ethics whereby the degree of ethicalness depends on the outcomes or actions that result from the decisions (rather than the decisions themselves).

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  • Telephone Areas

    Areas defined by codes in telephone numbers (the first six digits of a phone number).

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  • Telephone Focus Groups

    A focus group conducted through a telephone conference call. Usually 7-10 individuals are involved including a moderator that leads the discussion about a predetermined topic.

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  • Telephone Interview

    An interview where participants are asked survey questions over the telephone. Telephone interviewing is usually conducted from a central telephone interviewing facility.

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  • Telephone Sample

    A group of individuals that respond to surveys via the telephone.

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  • Telephone Survey

    Respondents are interviewed via the telephone. The telephone interview is normally conducted from a central telephone facility.

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  • Telescoping

    When respondents mis-remember when an event occurred, usually by stating that it occurred more recently than it really did.

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  • Television Market

    Defined individually by the company that measures the market. Arbitron samples Areas of Dominant Influence (ADIs), while NPD/Nielsen measures Designated Market Areas (DMAs).

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  • Television Rating

    Television Rating (TVR) = (reach * frequency)
    One TVR represents 1% of a specified television audience or universe seeing an advert at least once. (At extremes, television ratings can be made from either many people seeing an advert only once, or just a few people seeing an advert many times.)

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  • Temporal Ordering

    When a variable X (or a change in X) must occur before the variable Y (or a change in Y) is observed and it is one of the three conditions that have to be met to infer a causal relationship.

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  • Temporal Sequence

    The logical order of causal events to occur.

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  • Temporary Population

    An area where residents may be seasonal. Examples include commuters, tourists, snowbirds, etc.

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  • Terminate

    The respondent decides not to complete the interview and will cooperate no further.

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  • Termination Rate

    The number of eligible respondents who do not complete an interview once started.

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  • Test Market

    A procedure used when a new product or service is offered to a small scale market to test its success.

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  • Test Marketing

    A type of controlled experiment conducted in a carefully selected geographical area to understand the impact of a marketing program on the sales or profits of a product or service.

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  • Test Product

    The product being researched.

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  • Test Statistic

    A statistic computed from the sample data and is then used to test the hypothesis and how close the sample has come to the null hypothesis.

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  • Test-Retest Reliability

    A method of estimating the reliability of a test by repeating the measurement using the same scaling device under conditions that are judged to be similar.

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  • Testing Effect

    A result that is due to the research process as opposed to the experimental variable.

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  • Tests of Significance

    A mathematical test to determine if the findings in an experiment were due to influences of one or multiple variables on a dependent variable or merely by chance.

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  • Theatre Test

    An advertising testing procedure where participants are exposed to test and control commercials in the context of a TV program or a film.

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  • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

    A projective technique where participants are presented with one or more pictures or cartoons that depict a situation. They are asked to suggest what will happen or what one character may be saying or thinking in response to another character or a situation.

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  • Thematic Maps

    Geographic maps that also contain demographic data as well as information specifically targeted to a particular company (i.e. sales in that area). Thematic maps are generally computer-generated.

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  • Theory-Construction Diary

    A humanistic researcher’s thoughts, hypotheses, and reviews in thinking recorded in a journal.

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  • Third Person Technique

    A projective technique where participants are presented with a situation and are asked to suggest the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.

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  • Third-Person Techniques

    A technique used to reveal the true feelings of the respondent by asking them to answer the way that their “neighbor” or “most people” might answer the question.

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  • Tick Mark

    A way of tallying or counting by accumulating identical lines into groups of five, i.e., 1111 1111. Each mark or line represents one respondent or item.

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  • Time Series Analysis

    Data recorded by time intervals. Also referred to as exponential smoothing.

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  • Time Series Design

    A type of quasi-experimental design where a series of periodic measurements is taken from one group of test units, followed by a treatment, then another series of measurements.

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  • Time Use Survey

    A long-term questionnaire in which respondents record how they utilize their time, what they are doing as well as how they are doing it, in a journal spanning a few days to a few weeks.

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  • Top Box Score

    The percentage of respondents who gave the highest or top score on a scale. Sometimes the top two or three scores may be aggregated to calculate a top boxes score.

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  • Top-of-Mind Awareness

    A measure of how readily a brand name or concept comes to respondent' minds. It is the first answer to questions such as unaided brand awareness. The initial mentioning of a brand, product, vendor name, services, and so forth.

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  • Topic Guide

    An outline of the subjects to be discussed during group discussions and/or in-depth interviews. This tool provides the moderator with a list of subject matter for the discussion group or focus group. This process allows for flexibility as the moderator is not constrained by a structured questionnaire.

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  • Topline

    Results from a preliminary survey projecting how the population will respond to a few key questions.

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  • Topline Report

    A brief summary of the main findings of a study.

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  • Total Error

    The difference between the true value of a parameter in the population and a value derived from a survey. Total error is the sum of the sampling and non-sampling errors in a survey.

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  • Total Unaided Recall

    These are responses that are provided without any assistance of the interviewer when questioned to identify a brand, company, message, and so forth.

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  • Touch Tone Aided Telephone Interviewing (TATI)

    Telephone surveying initiated by an interviewer, but participants respond by pushing the touch-tone buttons of their phone. Can also be called touch tone data entry (TDE).

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  • Touch-Tone Data Entry (TDE)

    Telephone surveying initiated by an interviewer, but participants respond by pushing the touch-tone buttons of their phone. Also known as touch-tone aided telephone interviewing (TDE).

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  • Trace Analysis

    An observation technique where some record of past behavior is used to deduce what happened during an event, e.g. looking at packaging usage in a fast food restaurant to understand what flavored drinks sell the most.

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  • Tracking

    Subsequent studies that monitor consumer opinion, behavior, and attitude changes in brands or product categories.

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  • Tracking Study

    A study that provides periodic updating of company and competitor performances on criteria other than sales.

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  • Trade Area

    The geographical area that represents where a business’s customers are coming from. The size can vary greatly from a part of a city to an entire nation.

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  • Trade Off Analysis

    A way to quantify consumer's values associated with different product attributes using multivariate techniques. Participants compare products to establish preferences and can then explain the importance of different attributes. Functional brands benefit more from conjoint analysis than do fashionable brands as the analysis relies on utility theory and consumer rationality. There are several conjoint analysis tools.

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  • Traffic Count

    The measurement of a flow of people or vehicles past a particular point and it can be used in observation studies.

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  • Traffic Counters

    Devices that measure the number of vehicles that pass over a particular section of a road.

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  • Transcribing

    The act of inputting data into a database.

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  • Transcript

    The written record of an interview or focus group. This is a verbatim account.

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  • Treatment

    The changes that are being made to one or more independent variables in a research study.

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  • Trend Data

    Survey responses demonstarting the change of views and perceptions about a particular topic over time.

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  • Triad

    A focus group involving a moderator and three respondents. It is expected that with this few of respondents, the moderator is able to gain more information from the participants than they might in a larger group.

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  • Triad

    A type of depth interview where there are two respondents (instead of the usual one). Friendship pair interviewing is often used for research with children and young people (where they know each other) in order to avoid respondents being intimidated and biasing their responses accordingly.

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  • Trial Rate

    The amount of people measured as buying a product a least one time.

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  • Triangle Group

    A focus group with three participants who each have differing viewpoints.

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  • Triangular Product Test

    A type of blind test that involves three products where two are similar and the third is different. Participants are asked to test all three and indicate which two are similar to each other. The purpose of the test is to determine the degree to which participants can differentiate between the similar products and the different one.

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  • Trimmed Mean

    Found by taking the mean after altering the distribution by eliminating outliers and reducing the high and low ends of a distribution by a percent each.

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  • True Experimental Design

    The layout for a research project in which units are randomly assigned into both an experimental and a control group.

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  • True Experimental Design

    A type of experimental design where the researcher randomly assigns test units and treatments to the experimental groups. Examples of true experimental designs are: pre-test - post-test control group, post-test only control group, and a Solomon four group, six-study design.

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  • TTRA

    Travel and Tourism Research Association.

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  • TVR

    Television Rating (TVR) = (reach * frequency)

    One TVR represents 1% of a specified television audience or universe seeing an advert at least once. (At extremes, television ratings can be made from either many people seeing an advert only once, or just a few people seeing an advert many times.)

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  • Tween

    A young person aged around 8/9 to 12, who does not consider themselves to be a child, but is not yet a teenager.

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  • Tweenager

    A young person aged around 8/9 to 12, who does not consider themselves to be a child, but is not yet a teenager.

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  • Two Stage Sampling

    A simple case of multi-stage sampling where a sample of units is drawn from selected sub-groups of a population of interest. (Whereas with one stage sampling, data is collected from all available units in the selected sub-groups.)

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  • Two Way Classification

    The classification of a set of observations according to two criteria.

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  • Two-Tailed Test

    A test where the null hypothesis is expressed in terms of a characteristic existing or not existing, e.g. a value is 50%. From the results of the test, it is not possible to determine on which side of the test value the true answer lies, therefore directional (or one-tailed tests) are used more often.

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  • Two-Way Focus Groups

    A focus group observes a second focus group and then the first group discusses what the participants learned from their observations.

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  • Type I Error

    A mistake that is made when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis and accepts the alternative hypothesis, when the null hypothesis is correct.

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  • Type I Error (A Error)

    Rejecting a null hypothesis when it should not have been rejected because it is true.

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  • Type II Error

    A mistake that is made when a researcher accepts the null hypothesis and rejects the alternative hypothesis, when the null hypothesis is incorrect.

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  • Type II Error (B Error)

    Accepting a null hypothesis when it should have been rejected because it is false.

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  • U-Commerce

    The term U-Commerce reflects the move to start to retail across multiple platforms, for example by combining E-commerce, T-commerce, and M-commerce.

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  • Unaided Awareness

    A measure of how many respondents can quote a brand name without any assistance on behalf of the interviewer.

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  • Unaided Recall

    A measure of how many respondents can quote a brand name without any assistance on behalf of the interviewer.

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  • Unbalanced Scale

    A scale where the number of favorable and unfavorable categories is not the same.

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  • Unbiased Estimator

    The mean of the sample distribution and estimate distribution are equal.

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  • Unbiased Questions

    Questions that are worded so that they do not influence respondents’ opinions.

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  • Unbiased Samples

    This is a way of limiting the sampling error as a result of randomness only by deriving the samples from an unbiased source.

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  • Undisguised Observation

    The observation of behavior or events with participants’ knowledge.

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  • Unforced Rating Scale

    A scale that allows a neutral or no opinion choice.

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  • Unidimensional Scaling

    This process measures only one single attribute of an object or respondent.

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  • Union

    The event containing all simple events for both event A and event B. The concept of union can be extended to more than two events.

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  • Unipolar

    An ordinal scale with one positive end and one negative end.

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  • Unit of Analysis

    Units that constitute the population and the units selected for measurement.

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  • Univariate Data Set

    A data set in which one measurement (variable) has been made on each respondent.

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  • Univariate Techniques

    Forms of statistical analysis that are used where there is a single measure of each variable or where each variable is measured in isolation of other variables.

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  • Universe

    The set of all the units from which a sample is drawn. Also called the population.

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  • Unstructured Observation

    A form of observation study where the behaviors of interest and/or the method of observation are not clearly specified in advance of the study. The observer simply makes notes on the behavior being observed.

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  • Unstructured Question

    This is a question that does not provoke or influence the answer of the respondent in any way.

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  • Unstructured Questions

    Questions that do not have a set of anticipated responses listed on the questionnaires. The interviewer records the respondent's verbatim response. When the survey is interviewer-administered, the respondent is encouraged to respond completely and freely with the use of probing and clarifying techniques. These questions may also be self-administered.

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  • Unstructured Segmentation

    Process of segmenting a market using data and analysis when no prior ideas are held about the number of segments, what they are, or how and why they are different.

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  • Unwillingness Error

    Unwillingness Error is where respondents are reluctant to answer a particular question. This may be because too much effort is required, the situation or context is not seen as appropriate for disclosure, no legitimate purpose or need is seen for the information requested, or the information is seen as sensitive.

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  • Urban Population

    As defined by the 1980 census, all persons living in urbanized areas and in places of 2,500 or more inhabitants outside urbanized areas.

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  • Urbanized Areas

    A central city or cities and the surrounding (contiguous) closely settled territory. Must have at least 50,000 inhabitants.

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  • Usability Testing

    Usability Testing is the assessment of a product or service's effectiveness and efficiency as viewed by a specified group of users. It is customer-focused and based upon actual product/service trial. Usability Testing is most frequently employed with Web site testing, but is also used for myriad other applications such as assembly instructions, packaging use, product preparation, and other consumer-based actions. Usability Testing is a technique for ensuring that the intended users of a system can carry out the intended tasks. During a Usability Test, feedback is gathered to improve product design. The immediate result of a Usability Test is a list of specific recommendations as to how to improve the product. Usability Testing is done in a Usability Lab. Although actual lab designs may vary, Usability Labs tend to have the following in common: There are usually two rooms, one for the Observer(s) and one for the Participant(s). A one-way mirror separates the rooms so that the Observer can view the Participant unobtrusively. The Observer side is where the Usability Engineer and other observers may view the study. The one-way mirror allows observers to clearly see the participant side during the study, while minimizing any distractions for the participant. The wall and the one-way mirror are sound-proofed so that observers can converse without disturbing the participant. The Participant side of the lab is designed to simulate an environment appropriate to the product or service being tested. For example, if a Web site is being tested there will be a desk and chair set up with a computer, keyboard, mouse, speakers, etc. There are at least two cameras that can be positioned at virtually any angle by the engineer on the Observer side. Cameras are used to record the participant's expressions and movements while participating in the actions required. Microphones and speakers allow for communication between the two rooms but are in the control of the Observer side. Usability Testing not only provides a disaster check, but also, when properly employed, can provide direction for appropriate product design and marketing.

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  • Usage & Attitude Surveys (U&A)

    Research projects that aim to describe users (and non-users) of a product, together with their attitudes towards the product.

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  • User Image

    The impression created, either explicitly or implicitly, about the type of person who is likely to be a user of a brand. User images can be defined demographically, by life stage, lifestyle, or attitude.

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  • Utility

    The worth or value of each level of each variable relative to the other levels.

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  • Validation

    A survey integrity safeguard where the respondent is contacted to confirm their survey responses.

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  • Validity

    Validity questions whether the research measured what it was actually intended to measure. The extent to which a research process is accurate and reflects actual market conditions (i.e. it is free from systematic error).

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  • VALS

    Values and Lifestyle: A psychographic segmentation system offered by the Stanford Research Institute.

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  • Variability

    The difference among scores. The variability of scores in a sample is known as the standard deviation.

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  • Variable

    A quantity with an assigned value that may change during research.

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  • Variable

    A property that takes on different values at different times.

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  • Variable Respecification

    The transformation of data to create new variables (or modify existing variables) so that they are more consistent with the objectives of the study.

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  • Variance

    Variance measures the dispersion of a variable about its mean. The formula for calculating variance is the sum of the difference between the observed value and the mean value divided by the sample size.

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  • Variance

    A measure of variability (or dispersion) of a distribution and it is equal to the mean of the squared deviations of all values from the mean.

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  • Venn Diagram

    A graphical method of representing operations on sets that is often used to illustrate probabilities.

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  • Verbal Protocols

    A technique used to understand respondents' thought processes while they are performing a task or making a decision by asking them to think aloud.

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  • Verbal Rating Scales

    Verbal Rating Scales are those that require respondents to indicate their position by selecting among orally identified categories.

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  • Verbatim

    Transcribing or recording the provided responses of the respondent in their exact words.

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  • Verbatim Statement

    A reproduction of all of a respondent’s opinions of an object or concept word-for-word, without any omissions, abbreviations, or interpretations by the interviewer.

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  • Verified Data

    This method ensures data entry accuracy by entering the data multiple times.

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  • Verifying 100%

    This is the process of dual data entry and comparing both data sets for anomalies.

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  • Video Focus Groups

    The ability to conduct real time focus groups with participants situated at different physical locations using video technology.

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  • Viewing Facility

    A venue for conducting group discussions or individual interviews that has a two-way mirror. The purpose of the mirror is to allow clients and other invited parties (advertising or design agencies) to observe without influencing the discussion taking place.

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  • Viewing Room

    A room where researchers observe a focus group through a one-way mirror.

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  • Viral Marketing

    The effective way or advertising or producing brand exposure through social networks. The technique spreads throughout the network rapidly by word of mouth or by Internet resources like email, blogs, or other services. Like a virus, it replicates and spreads quickly. The cost of such a campaign is relatively low compared to the high rate of exposure to the target audience.

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  • Virtual Group

    A general term to cover any form of group discussion that is convened using electronic means and participants do not see each other. Examples of virtual groups are: online group discussions, moderated e-mail groups (MEGs), and chat rooms.

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  • Virtual Reality

    Computer generated artificial environment. Virtual market research is the latest advanced survey technology providing the respondent with sensory stimuli about the product or service being researched.

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  • Voice Pitch Analysis

    A test examining the human voice frequency reaction to emotion or stimulation.

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  • Volume per Buyer

     The average volume purchased per buyer over the period of an analysis.

     
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  • Wave

    A single mailing or group of interviews conducted at about the same time. A research study or survey may consist of several waves.

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  • Wave

    A tracking study where multiple waves are conducted over time.

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  • Web Bug

    The ability to detect whether or not an email or advertisement has been opened by the recipient. The web bug can provide other characteristics of the recipient’s connection and browser. Market researchers should review the ESOMAR Guidelines before using web bugs.

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  • Website Survey

    A questionnaire that is based on a web site. Potential respondents are invited to participate in the survey (by a banner advert or other message) and then they are given a link to a satellite site where they complete a questionnaire. The survey is completed online and respondents can be offered anonymity.

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  • Weighted Sample

    A sample to which weighting has been applied.

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  • Weighting

    Weighting is when the responses from some (or all) sub-groups are assigned a statistical weight to reflect the importance of the sub-group in the population of interest.

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  • Weighting

    A process of determining how much advertising is necessary to reach your target audience. There are three factors to consider. How many impressions will your ad receive or how often is it viewed. Reach measures how much of the target audience has been exposed to the advertisement. Finally, frequency measures the how often the target audience was exposed to your ad.

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  • Winsorized Sample

    The elimination of the highest and lowest survey result replaced by the second highest and second lowest result.

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  • Word Association

    A form of projective technique where participants are presented with a list of words and, after each word, they are asked to say the first word that comes into their minds.

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  • Word Association Tests

    Swiss psychiatrist, Carl Jung, developed this technique. The interviewer will state a word or phrase and the respondent must provide a one word answer immediately.

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  • Word of Mouth

    The process of promoting or marketing through human interaction. Customers share their opinions creating buzz. The Internet is a fantastic forum for this marketing technique. Blogs, readers, and discussion boards are popular online tools for generating buzz. A form of viral marketing.

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  • Working Phone Rate

    The number of working or assigned residential telephone numbers as a proportion of the entire sample.

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  • Write-Down

    Focus group participants write their views on a topic during the session. This practice assists in getting participants to commit to their point of view before other participants can influence them.

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  • Yea Saying

    A systematic bias caused by some respondents tending to agree with whatever is presented to them. Such a bias may be caused by either respondents or interviewers being overly friendly during interviews.

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  • Z Test

    A statistical test that is based on the standard normal distribution.

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  • Z Value

    The number of standard deviations a point on a distribution is away from the mean.

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  • Z-Test

    A statistical test used in inference determining if the difference between a sample mean and the population mean is large enough to be statistically significant. Z-Test reliability requires knowing the population mean, population standard deviation, and there must be a simple random sample.

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  • ZIP Code

    The United State Postal Service assigns regions or mailing districts with a Zone Improvement Plan (ZIP) code. A standard ZIP code contains 5 digits (i.e. 98040), or a combination of 5 digits – 4 digits (i.e. 98040-4545).

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  • ZIP Code Demographics

    Provides statistics and characteristics of a population located within a designated ZIP code. Age, sex, race, and total population size are just a few attributes a ZIP code demographic analysis can provide.

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